i-law

Autonomous Ships and the Law

Page 295

Index

Index

  • accidents, human errors in, 127
  • Achille Lauro incident, 41
  • Advanced Autonomous Waterborne Applications Initiative (AAWA), 224
  • Airbus A330-303, 125
  • Al Madinah (frigate), 26
  • American Samoa, pilotage regulation in, 283
  • Angliss case (1927), 107–108
  • Arnould, 224
  • artificial intelligence, 261
    • limitations, 9–11
    • P&I Club rules, 201–202
    • and vicarious liability, 135
  • ASKO, 98
  • assured person, 188, 216
  • Australia
    • pilotage exemption in, 286
    • pilotage regulation in, 282
  • Autoferry, 98, 99
  • automated systems
    • good seamanship, 253–257
    • insufficient knowledge of, 101–102
    • risks, 176
    • system failure, 176
  • automated vessels
    • definition of, 243
    • seaworthiness, 248
  • automation
  • automation systems, 176
  • Automation/Autonomy Inchmaree clause, 232, 233
  • autonomous offender ships, 35
    • commission of piracy by crew, 32–35
    • piracy using, 29–37
    • SUA offenses, 37–38
  • autonomous ships/vessels, 12–15
    • acceptance by public, 264
    • cargoworthiness, 247
    • definition of, 15
    • described, 243–244
    • good seamanship, 250–257
    • hull insurance, 177–178
    • infrastructure for, 264–265
    • labor costs vs. capital costs, 263–264
    • manning, 250
    • navigational risks, 207–209
    • negligence in operating or monitoring systems, 231–232
    • overview, 3
    • pilotage, 279–290
    • product liability, 144–151
    • proper manning, 250
    • risks factors, 175–176
    • seaworthiness, 245–250
    • ship and cargo safety, 265
    • shipowner’s liability, 86
    • and STCW Article III, 249
    • strict liability, 139–140
    • third-party repairmen, 250
    • vicarious liability, 135–139
  • autonomous surface vehicles, 199
  • autonomous systems
    • accumulated experience, 129
    • adapting to new situations, 130–131
    • ethical dilemmas, 131–132
    • and human errors, 127–128
    • quality assurance, 133–134
    • transparency, 132–133
  • autonomous technology, 155–168
  • autonomy. See also manning; ship automation; technical capability
    • constrained, 13
    • definition of, 13, 25
    • degrees of, 7–8
    • and fault liability, 87–89
    • full, 13
    • levels of, 13–15, 25
    • and manning, 15–18
    • monitored, 13
    • no, 13
    • scope of, 13, 15, 25
    • and technical capability, 15–18
  • aviation, strict liability in, 101
  • The B Atlantic, 234
  • back-up drivers, in self-driving cars, 101–102
  • Baer, W. S., 210
  • barratry, 215, 216, 228, 229, 230, 232
  • Belgium, 74
  • Biener, C., 209
  • biochemical weapons, 182
  • biological weapons, 182
  • black box, 92, 133, 257
  • Bloom’s taxonomy, 130–131
  • Boeing 737 Max 8 incidents, 101, 125
  • Brækhus, S., 110
  • Bramwell, Lord, 230
  • Bravur case (Denmark), 115
  • breach of duty, 161–166
  • British Standards Institute (BSI) standards, 164
  • burden of proof, 104
  • cameras, 89
  • Canada
    • pilotage exemption in, 286
    • pilotage regulation in, 283
  • Canadian Marine Pilots’ Association, 286
  • capture at sea, 182, 183
  • cargoworthiness, 245, 247
  • casualties, 181
  • celestial charts, 223
  • central limit theorem, 210
  • certification requirements, 164
  • charterers, 216
  • chemical weapons, 182
  • China, pilotage regulation in, 282–283
  • Cita, 247
  • Civil Aviation Authority, 164
  • civil war, 183
  • Class Guidelines for Autonomous and Remotely Operated Ships, 164
  • classification societies, 195–196, 197
  • CLC Convention, 158
  • Code of Practice (CoP), 165
  • cognitive control, loss of, 100–101
  • collision
    • avoidance, 13
    • liability rules, 127
    • strict liability rule in, 118–119
  • Collision Convention (1910), 99, 136, 138
  • COLREGs, 13, 64, 65, 72, 198, 253, 254, 273
  • Commercial Court, 107
  • Commune de Mesquer v. Total SA International Ltd., 151
  • compulsory pilotage, 285
  • confiscation, 182, 183
  • constantly manned vessels, 12
    • and constrained autonomy, 17
    • and no autonomy, 17
  • constantly unmanned vessels, 12
    • and full autonomy, 17
  • constrained autonomy, 14. See also autonomy
    • and constantly manned vessels, 17
    • and periodically manned vessels, 17
  • Consumer Protection Act 1987 (UK), 156
  • Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts against the Safety of Maritime Navigation (SUA), 25, 37–38
    • article 3, 40–41
    • article 3bis(1)(a), 41–42
    • article 3bis(1)(b)(i), 42
    • article 4(1), 41
    • article 4(2), 41
    • categories of ships, 38–40
    • definition of piracy, 29
    • definition of ship, 38–39
    • offences, 40–42, 41

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    Convention for the Unification of Certain Rules of Law with respect to Collisions between Vessels, 87
  • Convention on Limitation of Liability for Maritime Claims, 194
  • Convention on the High Seas (1958), 31
  • Convention on the International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea (COLREG), 159, 249, 279
  • Council Directive 85/374/EEC, 156
  • Court of Appeal, 107–108
  • Court of Justice of the European Union (CJEU), 151
  • crew
  • Criminal Code (1889) (Finland), 216
  • Croatia, pilotage exemption in, 287
  • Cyber Attack Exclusion Clause (CL380 10/03), 225–226, 227
  • cyber risk insurance, 209
  • cyber risks, 226–229
  • cyber security, 222–223, 228
  • cyber-attack clause, 137, 183, 184
  • Cyprus, pilotage exemption in, 287
  • damages, 186
  • data, 178
  • The DC Merwestone, 232
  • decision support, 8
  • deductibles, 179
  • deep learning neural networks, 132–133
  • defective design, 231
  • defectiveness concept, 147–149
  • degrees of autonomy, 7–8
    • IMO stages of, 224
    • regulatory scoping exercise, 59–61
  • Denmark, strict liability law, 115
  • depredation, 35–37
  • design, error in, 185–186
  • desirability of activity, 138
  • detention, and piracy, 35–37
  • deux ex machina, 125
  • development risk defense, 147–149
  • diabolus ex machina, 125, 134, 139
  • digital lookout, 60
  • Dijkstra, Edsger, 92
  • DNV-GL, 164
  • double status, 150
  • drone boats, 26
  • due care, 181
  • duty of care, 157–160
    • extent of duty and recipients, 157–160
    • and liability, 126
  • duty of disclosure, 181, 186
  • electromagnetic weapons, 182
  • Electronic Chart Display and Information System (ECDIS), 255
  • Eling, M., 209
  • EMIA Section 55(2), 217
  • enforcement ships, 24
  • enforcer ships, 39
  • English law, vicarious liability, 105–109
    • basic principles, 105–106
    • Muncaster Castle case, 106–109
  • enterprise liability, 135–137
  • entry-level seaworthiness, 244
  • equipment, definition of, 177
  • “error in design” provision, 185–186
  • Estonia, pilotage exemption in, 287
  • ethical dilemmas, 131–132
  • EU Product Liability Directive, 156
  • The Eurasian Dream (2002), 248
  • European Union
    • pilotage exemption in, 287
    • product liability directive, 150
  • exclusive economic zone (EEZ), 32, 34
  • experience, accumulation of, 128–130
  • explosive materials, 182
  • expropriation, 182, 183
  • Facilitation Committee, IMO, 59
  • fault liability
    • and level of autonomy, 87–89
    • limits of, 86
    • manufacturers vs. operators, 101
  • fault-based rules, 103–104
    • adaptation (stretching) of, 116
    • anonymous and cumulative faults, 104
    • burden of proof, 104
    • flexibility, 104
  • Finland, 284
  • fixed platforms, definition of, 30, 38
  • flag states, 71
    • P&I Club requirements, 195–196, 197
    • and regulatory requirements

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      for highly automated vessels, 71–74, 77–78
    • SOLAS Regulation I-4(b), 73–74
  • flight data recorders, 100–101
  • fly-by-wire system, 101
  • force majeure, 126
  • foreign state power, 183
  • fortuity, knowledge pattern changes, 213–214
  • full autonomy/fully autonomous mode. See also autonomy
    • and constantly unmanned vessels, 17
    • and decision support, 7
    • definition of, 14
    • duties of the master, 273
  • Gard P&I Rules, 217
  • German Supreme Court, 247
  • global positioning system (GPS), 223
  • good seamanship, 250–257
    • versus autonomous systems, 129
    • behavior characterization, 252–253
    • and collision avoidance, 13, 159
    • COLREGs rules, 253, 254
    • of computer systems, 253–257
    • definition of, 251–253
    • lack of, 256–257
    • and liability, 256–257
    • reasonable care and skill, 252
    • as standard of care, 255–256
  • Great Lakes, pilotage regulation in, 283
  • Greece, pilotage exemption in, 287
  • gross negligence, 188
  • Guam, pilotage regulation in, 283
  • Guidelines on Cyber Security Onboard Ships, 227
  • gyroscope, 164
  • Hague Visby Rules, 247, 250
  • Halsbury, Lord, 230
  • Hamburg Court of Appeal, 247
  • Hanstholm–Lindesnes line, 267
  • hardware failure, 231
  • “harm against ships” offences, 40–41
  • Harvard Draft Convention of 1932, 30
  • hazardous materials, 182
  • high impact low frequency (HILF), 212–213
  • high seas, 29
  • highly automated vessels. See also autonomous ships/vessels
    • definition of, 243
    • domestic regulatory requirements, 74–75
    • international regulatory requirements, 71–74
    • release from regulatory requirements, 75–78
    • seaworthiness, 248
    • specific legislation for experimentation, 74–75
    • switch mechanism, 75–76
    • terminology, 69–70
  • Hindustan SS Co v Siemens, 166–167
  • The Hongkong Fir (1961), 248
  • Hongkong Fir Shipping Co. Ltd. v Kawasaki Kisen Kaisha Ltd. (1962), 248
  • House of Lords, 108–109, 230
  • Houthi rebels, 23, 26, 30, 32, 35
  • hull and machinery insurance. See hull insurance
  • hull insurance, 175–190, 207, 217
    • duty of care, 181
    • duty of disclosure, 181, 186
    • “error in design” provision, 185–186
    • exclusion for inadequate maintenance, 184–185
    • gross negligence, 188
    • hull interest insurance, 178
    • identification, 188–190
    • insurance against marine perils, 182–183
    • insurance against war risks, 183–184
    • insured event, 181
    • marine perils, 182–183
    • Nordic Marine Insurance Plan, 180–190
    • ordinary, 178
    • overview, 175, 180–181
    • perils insured against, 182–186
    • regulation of, 177–178
    • reinsurance, 179–180
    • risk factors in autonomous ships, 175–176
    • risk management, 178–179
    • safety regulations, 187–188
    • scope of cover, 181
  • hull interest insurance, 178
  • human errors, 85, 101, 127–128
  • human navigational risks, 213–217
  • human versus autonomous systems
  • identification of assured, 188–190
  • inadequate maintenance, 184–185
  • Inchmaree clause, 229–231
  • independent contractors, 106
  • individual HILF events, 213
  • information, 178
  • Information Technology Device (IT hazard), 226, 226–229
  • Information Technology Hazards Clause (Clause 17), 226
  • information technology (IT) systems, 227–228
  • initial seaworthiness, 245–246
  • insolvency, 182
  • Institute Cyber Attack Exclusion Clause, 180
  • Institute of London Underwriters, 224, 229
  • Institute Time Clauses Hull (ITCH), 216
  • insurance, 135–137
    • cyber risk, 209
    • premiums, 179
    • shipowner’s liability, 159–160
  • insurance, hull, 175–190, 207
    • duty of care, 181
    • duty of disclosure, 181, 186
    • “error in design” provision, 185–186
    • exclusion for inadequate maintenance, 184–185
    • gross negligence, 188
    • hull interest insurance, 178
    • identification, 188–190
    • insurance against marine perils, 182–183
    • insurance against war risks, 183–184
    • insured event, 181
    • marine perils, 182–183
    • Nordic Marine Insurance Plan, 180–190
    • ordinary, 178
    • overview, 175, 180–181
    • perils insured against, 182–186
    • regulation of, 177–178
    • reinsurance, 179–180
    • risk factors in autonomous ships, 175–176
    • risk management, 178–179
    • safety regulations, 187–188
    • scope of cover, 181
  • insurance, marine
    • coverage, 224–226
    • cyber risks, 226–229
    • hardware failure, 231
    • history, 222–223
    • Inchmaree clause, 229–231
    • IT hazard, 226–229
    • negligence in operating or monitoring systems of autonomous ship, 231–232
    • overview, 222–223
    • proximate cause, 233–234
    • risk allocation, 233–234
    • software failure, 231
  • insurance, property and indemnity (P&I), 193–204
  • Insurance Contract Act, 179
  • insured evens, 181
  • intelligence, 9–11, 25
  • intelligent systems, functional mechanisms, 92
  • Interim Guidelines for MASS Trials, 23, 61–63, 73, 162
  • International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS), 65, 250
    • chapter 5 regulation 23.(2.2), 279
    • chapter 5 regulation 33.1, 274
    • flag states, 72–74
    • Regulation I-4(b), 71–74

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      Regulation V/14, 267
    • and scoping exercises, 279
  • International Convention on Civil Liability for Oil Pollution Damage (1966), 158
  • International Convention on Standards of Training, Certification and Watchkeeping for Seafarers (SCTW), 63, 71, 266
    • Article III, 248, 249
    • pilotage rules, 285
    • Regulation I/13, 63
    • regulation VIII/2 section 2, 267–268
    • and scoping exercises, 279
    • sections A-II to A-IV, 266
  • International Court of Justice (IJC), 31
  • International Law Commission (ILC), 30–31
  • International Management Code for the Safe Operation of Ships and for Pollution Prevention (ISM Code), 288
  • International Maritime Organization (IMO), 3
    • activities, 57–59
    • Facilitation Committee, 59
    • Interim Guidelines for MASS Trials, 23
    • interim guidelines MASS trials, 61–63
    • Legal Committee, 59
    • Legal Committee and Facilitation Committee, 279
    • Marine Environment Protection Committee, 59
    • Maritime Safety Committee, 262
    • overview, 55, 56–57
    • pilotage regulation, 285
    • Regulatory Scoping Exercise, 23, 24, 37–38, 57–61, 163, 279, 286
    • Safety Committee, 198
  • International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea 1972 (COLREGs), 13, 64, 65, 72, 198, 253, 254, 273
  • ionising radiations, 182
  • Ireland, pilotage exemption in, 287
  • iron ships, 222–223
  • Italy, pilotage exemption in, 287
  • Joint Excess Loss Clauses (JELC) CL 432, 226, 227
  • Knight, Frank, 217
  • knowledge pattern changes, human navigational risks, 213–214
  • Kujala, P., 85
  • Kystverket, pilotage regulation in, 286
  • labor costs, 263–264
  • Ladogales cadse (Norway), 113
  • Lambson Aviation case, 166
  • Latvia, pilotage exemption in, 287
  • law of large numbers, 210
  • learning algorithms, 11
  • Legal Committee, IMO, 59
  • lex specialis, 109
  • liability, 126–127
  • liability, shipowner’s, 85–95
    • assessment, 85–86
    • carriage of passengers, 99
    • current rules on, 99
    • fault liability, 87–89
    • fault liability limits, 86
    • finding negligence, 85–86, 90–94
    • insurance, 159–160
    • and level of autonomy, 86, 87–89
    • and negligence, 88
    • in oil pollution, 99
    • and product liability, 144–145
    • in unmanned ships, 89–90
    • vicarious liability, 88
  • liability, strict, 111–116, 139–140

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    liability, vicarious, 88, 104–111, 126
    • and artificial intelligence, 135
    • basic principles, 105–106
    • basis for, 135
    • English law, 105–109
    • enterprise liability approach to, 135–137
    • independent contractors, 106
    • Muncaster Castle case, 106–109
    • non-contractual, 135–136
    • Norwegian law, 109–111
    • premises of, 104–105
    • restrictive approach to, 135–137
    • tort, 106
  • liability insurance, 159–160
  • liability law
  • LIDARs, 89
  • liquidity, lack of, 182
  • Lithuania, pilotage exemption in, 287
  • Lloyd’s, 222
  • Lloyd’s Market, 226
  • Lloyd’s Market Association (LMA), 226
  • Lloyd’s Register, 164
  • load lines, 279
  • loss cascades, 212
  • loss randomness, 209
  • LR Code for Unmanned Maritime Systems, 164
  • machine learning, 9–11, 92, 129
  • machine systems, and human errors, 127–128
  • Maersk NotPetya incident, 211
  • maintenance, 184–185
  • The Makedonia (1962), 248
  • Manifest Shipping Co. Ltd. v Uni-Polaris Shipping Co. Ltd. (1997), 248
  • manning, 11–12. See also ship automation
    • autonomous vessels, 247, 250
    • and autonomy, 15–18
    • composition and size of crew, 267–269
    • definition of, 26
    • Hague Visby Rules, 247, 250
    • levels, 13
    • maritime training requirements for seafarers, 265–267
    • medical fitness requirements for seafarers, 265–267
    • periodically unmanned ships, 265–271
    • remote, 13
    • remotely controlled ships, 271–275
    • Rotterdam Rules, 250
    • and seaworthiness, 247
    • and technical capability, 15–18
    • unmanned ships, 261–276
    • working hours, 269–271
  • manual navigation
    • accumulation of experience in, 128–130
    • errors in, 128
  • Marc Rich & Co AG v Bishop Rock Marine Co Ltd (The Nicholas H), 160
  • Marine Autonomous Systems Regulatory Working Group (MASRWG), 165
  • Marine Environment Protection Committee (MEPC), IMO, 59
  • marine insurance
    • coverage, 224–226
    • cyber risks, 226–229
    • hardware failure, 231
    • history, 222–223
    • Inchmaree clause, 229–231
    • IT hazard, 226–229
    • negligence in operating or monitoring systems of autonomous ship, 231–232
    • overview, 222–223
    • proximate cause, 233–234
    • risk allocation, 233–234
    • software failure, 231
  • Marine Insurance Act (1906) (England), 224
  • Marine Insurance Act (1906) (United Kingdom), 216
  • marine perils, insurance against, 182–183
  • Maritime Autonomous Surface Ships (MASS), 37, 40
    • best practice documentation, 165
    • Code of Practice, 165
    • definition of, 7, 58
    • human navigational risks, 213–217
    • IMO rules, 37, 38, 56–57
    • interim guidelines for trials, 61–63, 162

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      maximum losses, 211–213
    • navigational risk randomness, 210–211
    • navigational risks, insuring, 207–209
    • overview, 56–57
    • property and indemnity insurance, 197–203
    • regulatory challenges, 60–61
    • regulatory scoping exercise, 57–61
    • type A vessels, 208
    • type B vessels, 208
    • type C vessels, 208
    • type D vessels, 208
    • type E vessels, 208
  • Maritime Code (2018) (Denmark), 149
  • Maritime Code (Norway), 109
  • Maritime Labour Convention, maritime training requirements for seafarers, 266
  • maritime liability, 144–145
  • maritime perils, definition of, 224
  • Maritime Safety Administration of the PRC, 282
  • Maritime Safety Committee (MSC), 262
  • Maritime Unmanned Navigation through Intelligence Networks (MUNIN), 224
  • Marna Hepso case (Norway), 115
  • MASS Working Group, 63
  • master of the ship, 271–272
  • master officers crew, negligence of, 216
  • maximum cyber losses, 211
  • maximum possible losses, extent of, 209
  • millennium clause (1999), 179
  • Mississippi River, 290
  • mobile offshore units, 177
  • moderately talented person, 27
  • monitored autonomy, 14
    • and periodically manned vessels, 17
  • Montewka, J., 85
  • moral hazard, human navigational risks, 213–214
  • mother vessels, 224
  • motor-ships, 222–223
  • Muncaster Castle case, 106–109
  • Mustill, Lord, 233
  • naked software risk, 209–213
    • cyber loss randomness, 209–210
    • cyber risk insurance, 209
    • maximum cyber losses, 211
    • maximum MASS losses, 211–213
    • navigational risk randomness, 210–211
  • narcotics smuggling, 26
  • navigation, accumulation of experience in, 128–130
  • navigational risks
    • insuring, 207–209
    • randomness, 210–211
    • type A vessels, 208
    • type B vessels, 208
    • type C vessels, 208
    • type D vessels, 208
    • type E vessels, 208
  • ND 1973.348 NSC UTHAUG, 90, 102, 114–115
  • ND 1995.163 DSC BRAVUR, 91
  • negligence, 215, 216, 228, 229, 230, 232
    • bad seamanship, 256–257
    • breach of duty, 161–166
    • duty of care, 157–160
    • in ensuring ship safety, 91–93
    • finding, 90–94
    • liability for, 126
    • of master of the ship, 273–274
    • in operating or monitoring systems of autonomous ship, 231–232
    • of remote crew, 90–94
    • and shipowner’s liability, 85–86, 88
    • use of unmanned ships as per se, 93–94
  • Neptun case (Norway), 113
  • Netherlands
    • Article 5 Shipping Act (1909), 75
    • general legislation for experimentation, 74
    • specific legislation for experimentation, 74–75
  • new situations, adapting to, 130–131
  • NMIP Version 2007, 180
  • no autonomy, 14
    • and constantly manned vessels, 17
  • non-contractual vicarious liability, 135–136
  • Nordic Insurance Contract Acts, 177
  • Nordic Marine Insurance Plan (NP), 175, 180–190
  • Nordic Plan Agreement, 183
  • Nordic Ship Safety Acts, 187
  • Northern Mariana Islands, pilotage regulation in, 283
  • Norvig, 93
  • Norway
    • m/v YARA Birkeland project, 98
    • pilotage exemption in, 287
    • strict liability law, 87, 112–116
    • Tort Act, 109
    • vicarious liability, 109–111
  • Norwegian Coastal Administration (Kystverket), 282
  • Norwegian Hull Club, 183
  • Norwegian law
    • strict liability, 112–116
    • vicarious liability, 109–111
  • Norwegian Marine Insurance Plan 1996 (NMIP) Version 1999, 180
  • Norwegian Marine Insurance Plan (NMIP)
    • Clause 3-32, 216
    • Clause 3-33, 216
    • Clause 3-36, 216
  • Norwegian Ship Safety Act, 187
  • Norwegian Supreme Court, 247
  • Norwegian University for Technology and Natural Sciences (NTNU), 98
  • Norwegian War Risk Association, 183, 184
  • offender ships, 24. See also victim ships
    • autonomous, 25–27
    • categories, 39
    • elements of automation, 25–27
  • oil pollution, 99
  • on-board crew, 11–12
    • minimum, 11
    • offender ships, 26
    • reduction of, 17
  • operational technology (OT) systems, 227–228
  • operators, P&I Club rules, 200–201
  • ordinary hull insurance, 178
  • ordinary practice of seamen, 13
  • own state power, 182
  • Oxman, 33
  • P&I Clubs, 193–204
  • Papera Traders Co. Ltd. & Others v Hyundai Merchant Marine Co. Ltd. (The Eurasian Dream), 248
  • Parkinson, A., 210
  • passenger, definition of, 32
  • passengers, autonomous ships, 264
  • perils of the sea, 226–227
  • periodically manned vessels, 12
    • and constrained autonomy, 17
    • and monitored autonomy, 17
  • periodically unmanned ships
    • composition and size of crew, 267–269, 268
    • manning, 265–271
    • maritime training requirements for seafarers, 265–267
    • medical fitness requirements for seafarers, 265–267
    • working hours, 269–271

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    pillage, 35
  • pilot
  • pilot transfer arrangements, 279
  • pilotage, 278–290
  • Pilotage Act (Finland), 284
  • pilots, negligence of, 216
  • piracy
    • autonomous offender ships, 29–37
    • commission by crew, 32–35
    • and cyber-attacks, 184
    • definition of, 27–28, 298
    • definition of ship, 30–32
    • depredation, 35–37
    • detention, 35–37
    • violent acts, 35–37
  • plunder, 35
  • pooling agreement, 194–195
  • Port State Control, 73
  • post-circulation produce warning, 165–166
  • prancing, 114
  • pre-circulation producer warning, 165–166
  • premiums, 179
  • priority status, 255
  • private nuisance, 111–112
  • producer
  • product liability, 127, 139, 144–151
    • and autonomous technology, 156
    • and bad seamanship, 267
    • defectiveness concept, 147–149
    • development risk defense, 147–149
    • European Union, 150
    • insurance, 159–160, 160
    • limitations, 149
    • and maritime shipowner liability, 144–145
    • overview, 144
    • P&I Club rules, 202–203
    • ship as product and shipyard as producer, 145–146
    • software as product and software designer as producer, 146–147
    • system errors, 147–149
  • Product Liability Directive (PLD), 149–150, 156
  • product standards, 164
  • product testing, 161–166
  • property and indemnity insurance (P&I), 193–204
  • proximate cause, 233–234
  • prudent owner test, 245
  • Puerto Rico, pilotage regulation in, 283
  • pure design, 157
  • quality assurance, 133–134
  • RACE II clause, 180, 182
  • radars, 89
  • radioactive materials, 182
  • radioactivity, 182
  • reckless risk-taking, 217
  • Regulation I-4(b) SOLAS, 7104
  • regulatory compliance, 163–165
  • regulatory requirements, 75–76
    • exemptions, 71–74
    • general legislation for experimentation, 74
    • group exemptions versus individual dispensations, 75–76

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      international plane, 71–74
    • release from, 75–76
    • specific legislation for experimentation, 74–75
    • switch mechanism, 75
  • Regulatory Scoping Exercise (RSE), 23, 24, 37–38, 57–61, 163, 279, 286
    • comment, 59–61
    • degrees of autonomy used, 59–61
    • IMO activities, 57–59
  • reinsurance, 179–180, 194–195
  • remote crew, 12
    • control of several vessels simultaneously, 249–250
    • data of adequate quality for, 89–90
    • negligence, 90–94
    • offender ships, 26, 33
    • sea-going experience, 249
    • and shipowner’s liability, 89
  • remote manning, 12
  • remote operability
    • definition of, 9
    • technical limitations, 90
  • remote operation centers (ROCs), 208
    • non-ROC staff interventions, 215–217
    • staff status, 215
  • remote operators, P&I Club rules, 200–201
  • remote pilotage, 284–286
  • remotely controlled boats/vessels
    • commission of crimes through, 26–27
    • commission of SUA offences, 40–42
    • described, 243
    • manning, 271–275
    • master of the ship, 271–272
    • pilotage, 279–290
    • scope and autonomy of, 26
    • seaworthiness, 248–249
    • terminology, 69. See also autonomous ships/vessels
    • without on-board crew, 27
  • remotely controlled vessels, shipowner’s liability, 86
  • repairers, 216
  • res ipsa loquitor doctrine, 107
  • respondeat superior. See vicarious liability
  • ReVolt, 224
  • riots, 184
  • risk(s)
  • Road Transport Act (1981) (Finland), 216
  • robbery, 35
  • Romania, pilotage exemption in, 287
  • Rotterdam Rules, 250
  • Royal Decree of 1 December 1975 (Belgium), 74
  • Russell, 93
  • Rylands v Fletcher, 111
  • sabotage, 184
  • safe containers, 279
  • safety records, 161–163
  • safety regulations, 187–188
  • SBOs (shore-based operators), 280–281, 285, 286, 288–289
  • scoping exercises, 23, 24, 37–38, 57–61, 163, 279, 286
    • comment, 59–61
    • degrees of autonomy used, 59–61
    • IMO activities, 57–59
  • seafarers, absence of, 199–200
  • seamanship, 250–257
    • versus autonomous systems, 129
    • behavior characterization, 252–253
    • and collision avoidance, 13, 159
    • COLREGs rules, 253, 254
    • of computer systems, 253–257
    • definition of, 251–253
    • lack of, 256–257
  • seamen, P&I Club rules, 200
  • search and rescue (SAR), 279
  • seaworthiness, 244–250
  • Selborne, Lord, 230
  • self-driving cars
    • back-up drivers, 102
    • liability in accidents, 101–102

  • Page 306

    Selvig, E., 110
  • semi-autonomous systems, human errors in, 128
  • sensors, 89
  • ship(s)
  • ship automation
    • autonomy, 12–15
    • elements of, 8–18, 16
    • intelligence, 9–11
    • manning, 11–12
    • remote operability, 9
    • technical capability, 9–11
  • shipowner
    • and autonomous technology, 155
    • double status, 150
    • duty of care, 158–159
    • as producer, 150
  • shipowner’s liability, 85–95
    • assessment, 85–86
    • carriage of passengers, 99
    • current rules on, 99
    • fault liability, 87–89
    • fault liability limits, 86
    • finding negligence, 85–86, 90–94
    • insurance, 159–160
    • and level of autonomy, 86, 87–89
    • and negligence, 88
    • in oil pollution, 99
    • and product liability, 144–145
    • in unmanned ships, 89–90
    • vicarious liability, 88
  • Shipping Act (Netherlands), Article 5, 75
  • shipyards
  • shore-based operators (SBOs), 280–281, 285, 286, 288–289
  • Singapore, pilotage exemption in, 286
  • Slovenia, pilotage exemption in, 287
  • software
    • defectiveness concept, 147–149
    • definition of, 178
    • development risk defense, 147–149
    • failure, 231
    • as a product, 146–147
    • product liability, 146–147
    • system errors, 147–149
    • testing, 92
  • software designer
  • Sokrates case (Norway), 113
  • SOLAS Convention, 65, 250
    • chapter 5 regulation 23.(2.2), 279
    • chapter 5 regulation 33.1, 274
    • flag states, 72–74
    • Regulation I-4(b), 71–74
    • Regulation V/14, 267
    • and scoping exercises, 279
  • South Korea, pilotage regulation in, 282
  • Soyer, B., 86
  • special trade passenger ship instruments, 279
  • specific seaworthiness, 244, 246
  • Standards of Training, Certification and Watchkeeping for Seafarers (STCW), 63, 266
    • Article III, 249
    • pilotage rules, 285
    • Regulation I/13, 63
    • regulation VIII/2 section 2, 267–268
    • and scoping exercises, 279
    • sections A-II to A-IV, 266
  • The Star Sea (1996), 248
  • state power
  • statistical loss experience data, 209
  • steam engines, 222–223
  • steam ships, 222–223
  • strict liability, 111–116, 139–140
  • strict liability, Norwegian law
  • SUA Convention (1988), 37
    • definition of piracy, 29
    • definition of ship, 38–39
    • offences, 41
  • SUA Convention (2005), 37–38
    • article 3, 40–41
    • article 3bis(1)(a), 41–42
    • article 3bis(1)(b)(i), 42
    • article 4(1), 41
    • article 4(2), 41
    • categories of ships, 38–40
    • definition of piracy, 29
    • definition of ship, 38–39
    • offences, 40–42
  • submarines, 90
  • submersibles, 40
  • suppression conventions, 37
  • Swedish Government Ordinance, 267
  • Swedish Maritime Code, 273
  • Swedish Vessel Safety Act, 267
  • system errors, 147–149
  • system failure. See also technical failure
    • definition of, 176
    • insurance against, 183
  • system standards, 163–165
  • technical capability, 9–11. See also autonomy; manning; ship automation
    • and autonomy, 15–18
    • definition of, 25
    • intelligence, 9–11
    • and manning, 15–18
    • remote operability, 9
    • using, 17
  • technical failure, 100–103
    • external causes leading to system failure, 103
    • genuine, 102–103
    • insufficient knowledge of automated systems’ capabilities, 101–102
    • interface between automated system and human conduct, 100–103
    • liability for (Norwegian law), 113
    • Neptun case (Norway), 113
    • Sokrates case (Norway), 113
    • taxonomy of, 100–103
  • terminology, 7
  • terrorism, 184
  • terrorists, modus operandi of, 26
  • Tesla. Nikola, 27
  • Texas, pilotage regulation in, 283
  • third-party repairmen, 250
  • tonnage measurement, 279
  • tort, 106
  • toxic materials, 182
  • transparency, 132–133
  • transponders, 255
  • Transport Board, 267, 269
  • “transportation” offences, 42
  • trials, 161–166
  • Turkey, pilotage regulation in, 283
  • type A vessels, 208
  • type B vessels, 208
  • type C vessels, 208
  • type D vessels, 208
  • type E vessels, 208
  • Uber self-driving car, 101–102, 127, 131
  • UNCLOS, 25, 71, 198
    • article 101, 34
    • article 101(a)(i), 29, 30, 31, 34–35, 35–36
    • article 105, 34
    • article 110, 34
    • article 94(4)(b), 272
    • definition of piracy, 33–34
  • United Kingdom
    • pilotage exemption in, 287
    • pilotage regulation in, 283
  • United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea. See UNCLOS
  • United States
    • pilotage exemption in, 287
    • pilotage regulation in, 283
  • unmanned ships, 12
    • categories, 243–244
    • composition and size of crew, 267–269, 268
    • finding negligence in, 90–94
    • manning of, 261–276
    • maritime training requirements for seafarers, 265–267
    • master of the ship, 272–275
    • medical fitness requirements for seafarers, 265–267
    • onboard manning, 90
    • overview, 261–262
    • periodically, 265–271
    • remote crew, 89–90
    • remotely controlled, 271–275
    • shipowner’s liability in, 86, 89–90

    • Page 308

      use of, as per se negligence, 93–94
    • working hours, 269–271
  • unmanned surface vehicles, 199
  • U.S. Virgin Islands, pilotage regulation in, 283
  • Uthaug case, 90, 102, 114–115
  • very large crude carriers (VLCCs), 158
  • vicarious liability, 88, 104–111, 126
    • and artificial intelligence, 135
    • basic principles, 105–106
    • basis for, 135
    • English law, 105–109
    • enterprise liability approach to, 135–137
    • independent contractors, 106
    • Muncaster Castle case, 106–109
    • non-contractual, 135–136
    • Norwegian law, 109–111
    • premises of, 104–105
    • restrictive approach to, 135–137
    • tort, 106
  • victim ships, 24, 38, 41. See also offender ships
  • Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties (VCLT), article 31, 30
  • violent acts, and piracy, 35–37
  • virtual security, 228
  • virus programs, 183
  • war, 183
  • war risks, insurance against, 183
  • war-like conditions, 183
  • Watt, James, 222
  • West India and Panama Telegraph Company v Home and Colonial Marine Insurance Company, 230
  • Wetterstein, P., 86
  • Wilmer, L. J., 107
  • Wirfs, J. H., 209
  • wooden ships, 222
  • working hours, 269–271
  • Wróbel, K., 85
  • YARA Birkeland, 98, 265

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