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Shipping and the Environment

Index

Index

  • A Turtle
  • Abnormally dangerous activities, 240–241, 493, 965
  • Access to places of refuge. See Places of refuge for ships
  • Access to territorial seas and ports, 905–920
  • Acts of God
    • CERCLA (United States), 310–311, 669
    • definition, 310
    • international compensation Conventions. See Natural phenomenon
    • Oil Pollution Act 1990 (United States), 201–203, 669
  • Acts of war
    • CERCLA (United States), 310–311, 669
    • Oil Pollution Act 1990 (United States), 201, 203, 669
  • Acts or omissions
    • CERCLA (United States), 310–312, 669
    • charterers, 625, 628
    • claimants
      • Civil Liability Conventions, 92–94
      • Fund Conventions, 146, 153
      • Hazardous and Noxious Substances Convention 1996, 281–283, 285
    • limitation of liability, 109, 119
    • navigational aids, 104–105
    • Oil Pollution Act 1990 (United States), 193–194, 201, 203–204, 207–208
    • ship management, 653–654
  • Actual fault or privity. See also Privity and knowledge
    • “actual fault”, 792–793
    • arrest of ships, 134
    • burden of proof, 794
    • Civil Liability Convention 1969, 116
    • compensation, 116–117
    • definition, 792–793
    • limitation of liability, 116–117
    • Limitation of Liability Convention 1957, 116, 791–794
    • masters, 793
    • national laws, 794
    • non-delegable duty, 793
    • P&I Clubs, 116–117
    • “pay to be paid”, 116
    • “privity”, 793
    • ship managers, 792
    • Torrey Canyon, 11
  • Actual loss, 775
  • Admiralty jurisdiction
    • Admiralty Extension Act (United States), 179–180
    • maritime liens, 178–179
    • tort, 180
    • United States, 177–180
  • Admittance to ports, 584, 758–759, 767–768, 908–913
  • Advertisements, OPA–90 claims procedure, 217
  • Aegean Captain, 542, 667, 906
  • Aegean Sea, 72–73
    • act or omission of claimant, 104–105
    • charterers, 637
    • criteria for admissibility of claims, background to, 366, 438
    • economic loss. See under Economic loss
    • employees, 473
    • fishing and related industries, claims by, 448, 452, 455, 458
    • limit of liability, 1992 Fund, 72
    • limitation of liability under 1976 Convention,
      • charterers, 637
      • claims subject to limitation, 796–797
    • negligence, 104–105, 695
    • pilot, contributory negligence of, 104–105, 695
    • ports, claims relating to, 469–470
    • preventive measures, loss caused by, 390–391
    • salvage and related operations, 403–404
    • shipping claims related to, 469–470
    • social security payments, 474
    • special compensation, claimed as cost of preventive measures, 403–404
    • tourism, 460, 464
    • unlicensed activities, 474
  • Agip Abruzzo, 400–402
  • Agriculture, effect of oil spill on, 470, 471
  • Air pollution
    • Clean Air Act (United States), 883–889
    • compensation under international conventions
    • criminal liability (United States), 1137–1138
    • prevention (MARPOL), 840–847
  • Al Jaziah 1
    • recourse action by 1971 Fund, 138
    • “ship”, CLC 92, 87
  • Alambra
    • claim for fine or penalty outside scope of CLC 92, 483–484, 486
    • claims outstanding against 1971 Fund, 138
  • Alcohol testing, 864–865, 1146
  • Alter egos
  • American Trader
    • economic loss claims, Californian state law, 436
    • liability of time charterer, 611–612
    • Oil Pollution Act 1990 (United States), provided impetus for, 52
    • Trans-Alaska Pipeline Authorization Act (United States), 43–44
  • Amoco Cadiz, 27–28
    • 1984 Protocols, led to, 29
    • alter egos, liability of, 662–663
    • associated parties, liability of, 662–663
    • Civil Liability Conventions
      • application of incident to CLC 69, 27–28, 108
      • channelling provisions, 107–111
      • claims in non-CLC states, 112–113
      • parties other than shipowner, claims against, 107, 652–654
      • “servants or agents” of shipowner, 107–108, 652–654
    • common law, liability at, 656–657
    • economic loss, 430
    • fixed costs
      • “committed costs”, 384
      • equipment on standby, 387–388
      • overheads, 387
      • salaries and equipment, 385–386
    • intervention, 903–904
    • litigation in United States, summary, 27–28
    • managers, liability of, 652–654
    • negligence, 112, 657
    • operators, liability of, 652–654
    • parent company, liability of, 662–663
    • salvage
      • changes in law, led to, 542–543
      • claims against salvors, 543, 592
  • Amorgos
    • detention of officers and crew, 1107
    • Taiwan Association for Human Rights, 1104
  • Andros Patria, 908–909
  • Angling clubs, 471, 472
  • Anti-fouling systems, 847–850
  • Antonio Gramsci
    • first incident (1979), 151, 481
    • second incident (1987), 483
  • Aquacultural stocks, 408, 410, 415, 446–452
  • Aquatic invasive species, 887–889
  • Arbitration
  • Area Contingency Plans, 66, 929, 933, 944–947
  • Area exercises, 986–987
  • Argana, 1100
  • Argo Merchant, 47–48, 514, 858, 931
  • Ariadne, 271
  • Arrest of ships
    • actual fault or privity, 132–133
    • alter egos, 658
    • burden of proof, 135
    • Civil Liability Convention 1969, 131, 132–134
    • Civil Liability Convention 1992, 133–134, 135
    • conduct, 135
    • counter-productive, 131
    • Fund Conventions, 132, 133–134
    • limitation funds, 132–134
    • limitation of liability, 133–135
    • Limitation of Liability Convention 1957, 134, 135
    • Limitation of Liability Convention 1976, 134
    • national laws, 132
    • Nissos Amorgos, 136
    • P&I Clubs, 136
    • public authorities, 136
    • release, 134, 135–136
    • Seki, 136
    • sister, 657
    • Wladyslaw Lokietek, 134, 135
  • Arvak Ltd, 61
  • Asset Conservation Act (United States), 722–725
  • Assignment
    • charterers, 641, 642
    • Fund Conventions, rights under, 168
  • Athos I
    • charterer, potential liability, 610
    • funding of clean-up, 211
    • incident, 67
    • limit of liability
      • concerns about adequacy, 67
    • legislation to increase, 207
    • NPFC claim procedures, 216
    • nuisance claims, 239
    • terminal operator, potential liability, 617
  • Atlantic Empress, 542, 906
  • Autopilots, 873–874
  • Average. See General average, Particular average
  • Averity, 1103
  • Bahamas, 1011
  • Ballast
    • bunker spills, 257
    • Civil Liability Convention 1969, 88–92
    • Civil Liability Convention 1992, 72, 88–92
    • emissions, 884
    • double hulls, 867
    • Fund Convention 1992, 72
    • Hazardous and Noxious Substances Convention 1996, 275
    • MARPOL 73/78, 824, 825
    • OILPOL 54, 821–823
    • segregated ballast tanks, 823, 824
  • Ballast Water and Sediments Management Convention, 850–853. See also under International rules to prevent pollution
  • Ballast water management in US, 887–889
  • Baltic Carrier
    • “incident”, CLC 92, 93
    • environmental impact studies, costs, 489–490
    • oil contaminating colliding ship, 669
  • Ban Ann, 1088
  • Bareboat charters
  • Barges, 87–88, 971
  • Basel Convention on Transboundary Movements of Waste, 1017–1022. See also Shipment of waste
    • civil liability and compensation, 1022
    • control of movements between contracting states, 1020–1021
    • criminal liability and public law obligations, 1021
    • dismantling of vessels, 1030–1049, passim. See also Dismantling of vessels
    • movements permissible subject to controls, 1021
    • non-compliance with, 1021–1022
    • prohibition of movements, 1020
    • scope, 1018–1019
    • “wastes”, meaning, 1019
  • Betelgeuse, 270
  • Bilge water
    • CERCLA (United States), 347–348
    • hazardous waste, 347–348
    • MARPOL 73/78, 766
  • Birds
    • clean-up, 379
    • criminal offences, 1030–1031
    • Migratory Bird Treaty Act (United States), 1030–1031
  • Blue cards, 126
  • Blue Lady, 1037–1039
    • beaching irreversible, 1033
    • Supreme Court of India, judgment, 1027, 1036
  • Braer, 72–73
    • agriculture, effect on, 470–472
    • criteria for admissibility of claims, background to, 366, 438
    • dispersal of oil, 361
    • economic loss. See under Economic loss
    • employees, 472–474
    • environmental impact studies, funding of, 488–490
    • fishing and related industries, claims by, 447–450, 452–456, 472–474
    • health, effect on, 357
    • Landcatch claim, 442–444, 456–457
    • oil spilt, type of, 360
    • property damage, 409
    • real estate, loss of market value, 409
    • recourse against P&I Clubs by IOPC Fund, 731
    • salvage and related operations
      • primary purpose test, 398
      • special compensation, claimed as cost of preventive measures, 403–404
    • tourism promotion, 468
    • unlicensed activities, 474–475
    • windblown oil spray, 409, 470–472
  • Brent Spar, 1008, 1013
  • Bridge-to-Bridge Radio Telephone Act 1971 (United States), 877
  • Brussels Collision Convention. See Colliding ships
  • Brussels Conference 1969, 14–17
  • Brussels Conference 1971, 17–18
  • Bulk carriers, 89, 255
  • Bunker emission clauses, 645–646
  • Bunker spills, 255–266. See also Bunkers Convention, Double bottoms
  • Bunkers Convention 2001
    • background, 76, 258
    • certification, 264
    • channelling provisions, absence of, 260–262, 594, 609
    • charterers, 262, 609
    • compulsory insurance, 264
    • geographical scope, 259
    • insurer, 264
    • judgments, recognition and enforcement, 265
    • jurisdiction of courts, 265
    • liability
      • incurred independently of Convention
        • by shipowner, 261
        • other parties, 262
      • insurer, 264
      • limitation, 262–264
      • parties liable under Convention, 260
      • scope of, 259
    • limitation of liability, 262–264
      • claims subject to limitation, 263
    • parties liable, 260
    • responder immunity, absence of, 260–262, 594
    • salvors, 594
    • scope of liability, 259
    • “ship”, 265
    • time limit for claims, 265
  • Business interruption, 469
  • California
    • financial responsibility requirements, 60
  • Camp sites, 461
  • Canada
    • Fund Convention 1971, 87–88
    • Irish Stardust, 103
    • navigational aids, 103–104
    • Oil Pollution Act 1990 (United States), 55
    • response measures in the United States, 962
  • Carbon dioxide emissions, 845–846
  • Carbon monoxide, 883, 885
  • Cargo. See also Cargo interests
    • bunker spills, 88
    • collision, 780
    • contamination, 781
    • destruction, 778
    • general average, 768
    • insurance, 771–774, 778
    • lightering, 875–876
    • special compensation, 558
    • total loss, 778
  • Cargo interests, 607–649
  • Carriage by sea
    • Hazardous and Noxious Substances Convention 1996, 276
    • US hazardous and noxious substances, 296, 300
  • Castillo de Bellver, 1012
  • Castor
    • “damage to the environment”, Salvage Convention, no substantial threat, 552
    • contact points, coastal states, 894
    • places of refuge
      • search for, 910–911
      • IMO Guidelines, led to, 916
  • Catastrophe losses, effect on reinsurance of P&I risks, 731
  • Causation. See also Proximate cause
    • CERCLA (United States), 339–340
    • charterers, 635
    • claims, 356
    • clean-up, 391
    • Clean Water Act (United States), 177
    • economic loss, 438–440, 441
    • natural resources, 493
    • negligence, 237–238
    • Oil Pollution Act 1990 (United States), 206
    • tourism, 460
    • United States, 237–238
  • Causes of action
    • Clean Water Act (United States), 35
    • Oil Pollution Act 1990 (United States), 177
    • Refuse Act (United States), 182–183
    • United States, 234–241
  • CERCLA (United States), 47, 55, 59, 303–352
  • Certificates of Financial Responsibility
    • Arvak Ltd, 61
    • CERCLA (United States), 220–221
    • First Line, 61
    • fleet, 224
    • Florida, 613
    • insurance, 750
    • lightering, 875
    • Mobil, 62
    • Oil Pollution Act 1990 (United States), 57, 220
    • P&I Clubs, 57
    • Shoreline Mutual Insurance Association, 61
    • Sigco, 61
    • Water Quality Insurance Syndicate (WQIS), 61
  • Certification. See also Certificates of Financial Responsibility
    • bunker spills, 264–265
    • Civil Liability Conventions, 125–127
    • container packing certificate, 882
    • double hulls, alternatives to, 870
    • Hazardous and Noxious Substances Convention 1996, compulsory insurance, 286
    • hazardous and noxious substances, packing, 881
    • manning, 864–865
    • Oil Pollution Act 1990 (United States), 864–865
    • insurance, 749–750
    • International Oil Pollution Prevention Certificate, 870, 896
    • MARPOL 73/78, 823, 841, 863–864
    • Standards, 1053
    • vessel response plans, 896
  • Charlotte, 792
  • Charterers, 607–649. See also Bareboat charters
  • Charterparty clauses, 643–647
    • bunker emission clauses, 645–646
    • cost of additional insurance, 647
    • oil major approval clauses, 644
    • payment for insurance, 646–647
    • response measures
      • oil company clauses, 643–644
      • TOVALOP Charterparty Clause, 643
    • vetting clauses, 645
  • Charts, 104
  • Chemicals
    • CERCLA (United States), 347–348
    • Hazardous and Noxious Substances Convention 1996, 269–293
    • hazardous waste, 349–350
    • National Contingency Plan, 958–959
  • Civil Liability Conventions 1969 and 1992, 3, 80–136
    • act of God. See natural phenomenon
    • acts or omissions of claimants, 104–105
    • actual fault or privity, 793
    • agents of shipowner, liability excluded by, 107–108
    • alter egos, 119, 657–658, 791–792
    • arrest, 121, 132–136
    • background
    • bareboat charters, 629
    • Brussels Conference 1969, 14–17
    • builder, liability not excluded by, 109
    • bunker spills, 4, 86, 88, 244–245, 256–258, 263–264
    • cases covered by CLC 92 but not by CLC 69, 6
    • cases not covered by Conventions, 5–6
    • causation, 356–357
    • certification, 15, 125–127
    • channelling provisions, 107–113
    • charterers
      • claims by, 641
      • exclusion of liability
      • recourse action against
        • by shipowner, 627–628
        • limitation of liability, 637–638
      • TOVALOP Charterparty Clause, 643
    • charts, 104
    • claims
      • admissibility and assessment
        • clean-up operations and preventive measures, 371–406
        • criteria. See Criteria for admissibility of claims (IOPC Funds)
        • economic loss, 415–417, 437–475
        • general principles, 105–107, 355–369
        • marine environment, damage to, 477–490
        • property damage, 407–412
        • non-CLC states, 112–113
    • classification societies, 111
    • clean-up operations,
      • generally, 357, 371–372
      • loss or damage caused by, 390–391
      • persons taking measures, 372–374
      • reasonableness of measures, 375–379
      • technical problems, 362
    • colliding ship, owner of, 109
    • collision, 109, 779
    • combination carriers, 89–91
    • Comité Maritime International,
      • CLC 69, preparatory work, 12–13, 14–16
      • CMI Guidelines on Oil Pollution Damage, 369
    • compensation
      • general framework, 3, 81–82
      • limits
      • supplemental, under Fund Convention, 3, 81–82, 131–134
    • conduct of owner
      • barring limitation
        • CLC 69, 116–117
        • CLC 92, 72, 119
        • guarantor’s liability, no effect on, 127
        • wilful misconduct
          • guarantor’s liability, effect on, 127
      • contamination. See also Environmental damage
      • clean-up operations, 375–379
      • damage not caused by, 412
      • escape or discharge oil,
        • contamination resulting from, 346–357, 412
        • contamination not resulting from, 412
      • fisheries. See also Fishing industry and related industries
        • equipment, 452
        • fish farms, 446
        • sampling, 449
        • wild fish and other seafood, 449–451
      • loss or damage, cause of, 356–357
      • property damage, 408–409
      • technical considerations, 359–363
      • water supplies, 452
    • corporate veil, 85
    • costs of clean-up operations and preventive measures
    • criteria for admissibility of claims. See claims, Criteria for admissibility of claims (IOPC Funds)
    • default in maintenance of navigational aids. See maintenance of navigational aids definitions, 85–98
    • denunciation of CLC 69, 19, 81
    • direct action against insurer, 131–132, 749–750
    • economic loss. See also Economic loss
    • enforcement of judgments, 131–136
    • entry into force
    • exclusive economic zones, 5, 72, 83, 84, 144
    • fault, 15, 98
    • financial limits
    • fisheries. See under contamination, and also Fishing and related industries
    • Fund Conventions, relationship with, 3–4, 17–19, 81–82, 137–138, 144–145
    • general average, relationship with, 760, 763, 765
    • geographical scope, 5, 72, 83–85
      • contracting states, 1000–1004
      • exclusive economic zones, 5, 72, 84
    • guarantors, 127, 131–132, 749
    • health claims, 357
    • incident
    • indemnity, insurer’s right of against shipowner, 127–128
    • insurance
    • insurer. See also insurance
    • interim payments, 112, 122–124, 160–164
    • International Maritime Organization, 71
    • intervention
      • by IOPC Funds in proceedings under CLC, 165
      • state intervention, costs of, 903–904
    • IOPC Funds, see IOPC Funds
    • joint and several liability, 95
    • judgments
      • enforcement, 131–136
      • mutual recognition and enforcement, 132
      • recognition, 131–132
      • IOPC Funds, effect on, 165
    • jurisdiction, 15, 112, 128–131
    • lender liability, 710–712
    • liability, 15, 72, 85, 98
      • basis for, 15, 98
      • exceptions, 98–105
      • guarantors, 127
      • insurers, 127
      • limitation of. See limitation of liability
      • pollution damage, other than for, 106–107, 112
    • lights, 104
    • Limitation Convention 1976
    • limitation funds
      • distribution of fund, 122–125
        • interim distribution, 122–124
        • owner’s expenses, 124–125
        • reserve for outstanding claims, 122–123
        • subrogation claims against fund, 123–124
      • establishment of fund, 120–122
        • jurisdiction, 121
        • conversion into national currency, 121
        • interest on, 121–122
    • limitation of actions, 128
    • limitation of liability
    • limitation tonnage
    • loss of profit. See also Economic loss
      • in revised definition of “pollution damage”, 358
    • maintenance of navigational aids, default in, 101–104
      • “maintenance”, meaning, 103–104
      • “navigational aids”, meaning, 104
      • alternative remedy, whether necessary, 102–103
    • malicious act, 101
    • marine environment, claim for damage to,
    • mobile offshore units, 91, 243, 248
    • natural phenomenon, 99–100
    • natural resources. See marine environment
    • navigational aids. See maintenance of
    • negligence, 102–103, 104–105, 112–113
    • occurrence
      • incident, meaning, 92
      • time limit for claims, 128
    • oil, definition, 96–98
    • oil barges, 87–88
    • owner, definition, 85–86
    • P&I Clubs, 125, 126, 127–128, 750–751
    • parties liable under, 6–7
    • persistent oil, definition, 96
    • personal injury, 357
    • piercing the corporate veil, 85
    • pilots, 104, 105, 111, 147
    • pollution damage
    • port state control, 15, 125
    • preventive measures, 15, 72, 84–85, 90, 92, 94, 105–106, 108, 124, 129, 356–357, 371–406
    • property damage, 106, 407–412
    • Protocol 1976, 113, 121
    • Protocol 1984, 29–30, 71
      • United States, decision not to ratify, 52, 55
    • Protocol 1992, 71–73, 81, 137–138, 482
    • proximate cause
      • war risks exclusion, 99
    • proximity
      • between contamination and economic loss
    • public authorities. See also clean-up operations, Clean-up, Clean-up costs
      • act or omission of, 104–105
      • default in maintenance of navigational aids, 101–104
    • pure economic loss. See Economic loss
    • “pure threat” situation. See incident, pre-spill costs
    • ratification, 1992
    • Protocol, 72–73
    • recognition of judgments, 131–136
    • recourse, owner’s rights of, 107, 166
    • registered owner, 85–86
    • relationship between conventions
    • remedies
    • revision, 14–15, 31–32
    • sale and leaseback, liability of owner, 86
    • salvage. See salvors, Salvage
    • salvors
      • claims by, 587–590
      • liability for pollution, exclusion of, 108, 590–594
      • payments to, claims for, 396–404
    • scope of, 82–98
    • ship
      • definitions, 86–92, 95
      • incident involving two or more, 95
      • small, 30, 131
      • tanker in ballast, 88–89
      • warships, 105
    • ship builders, 109
    • ship financiers, 710–712
    • ship managers, 651–655
    • shipowners
      • definition, 85–86
      • exceptions to liability of, 98–105
      • servants or agents, liability of
      • strict liability of, 15, 98
    • small tankers, 30, 131
    • state immunity, 102, 105
    • state-owned ships, 91–92
    • status in contracting states, 999–1004
    • strict liability, 15, 81, 85, 98
      • exceptions to shipowner’s, 98–105
    • sunken wrecks
      • contact with, 356
      • time limit for claims, 128
    • tankers, 95
      • bunker spills, 256–258
      • in ballast, 88
    • terminal operators, 109
    • territorial sea, 5, 83–84
    • tonnage, 14, 81
    • TOVALOP, 14–15, 26, 30
    • transitional period, 71, 131, 383
    • two or more ships, 95
    • two-tier system, 17–18, 81
    • war risks, 99
    • warships, 105
    • wilful misconduct
      • effect on liability of guarantor, 127
    • wrecks
      • contact with, 356
      • time limit for claims, 128
  • Claims. See also Damages, Legal proceedings
  • Class actions
    • Deepwater Port Act, 45
    • Oil Pollution Act 1990 (United States), 226
  • Classification societies
    • charterers, 622
    • controls on ship safety standards, 1067–1068
    • International Association of Classification Societies, 63, 1067–1068
    • liability for pollution, 109
    • Oil Pollution Act 1990 (United States), 63
    • ships, vetting programmes, 622
    • standards, 63, 1054, 1067–1068
  • CLC. See Civil Liability Conventions 1969 and 1992
  • Clean Air Act (United States), 883–887, 1137–1138
    • criminal liability for violations, 1137–1138
    • emission standards
      • ocean-going vessels, 885–887
  • Clean-up. See also Clean-up costs
    • birds, 379
    • bulk oil, 378
    • bunker spills, 372
    • causation, 391
    • Civil Liability Conventions, 372, 391–392
    • contamination, 390
    • “damage”, 392
    • dispersants, 376, 377–378
    • economic loss, 391
    • Exxon Valdez, 379
    • Fund Conventions, 372, 391–392
    • hazardous and noxious substances, 392
    • Hazardous and Noxious Substances Convention, 372, 392
    • IOPC Funds, 382, 391
    • law and practice, 382–383
    • limitation of liability, 24
    • loss or damage, 390–391
    • onshore operations, 378–379
    • offshore operations, 376–378
    • P&I Clubs, 382, 733–734
    • personal injuries, 391
    • pre-existing conditions, 378
    • pre-spill costs, 372, 404–406
    • preventive measures, 371–372
    • public authorities, 372, 376
    • publicity, 372, 376
    • purpose of measures, 391–392
    • reasonableness, 375–383
    • recovery of oil at sea, 377
    • repairs, 390
    • response measures in the United States, 962–963
    • restoration, 371, 531
    • salvage, 392–404
    • shipowners, 379
    • ships
      • escape from, 379
    • technical issues, 362, 372, 376, 378
      • ITOPF paper, Preventive Measures and Property Damage, 359, 362, 376
    • threat removal, 392
    • Torrey Canyon, 371, 375–376
    • transshipment, 392
    • United States, 372
    • wildlife rehabilitation, 379
  • Clean-up costs, 7, 9
  • Clean Water Act (United States), 8–9, 20, 21, 23, 32–40, 184–192
  • Clémenceau, 1035–1037, 1044
    • recycling in the UK, 1042
  • CMA Djakarta
    • charterer, right to limit liability, 638, 790
    • “consequential loss”, LLMC Art. 2.1(a), 677
    • dangerous goods, shipment, 634
    • “property”, LLMC Art. 2.1(a), 799
  • CMI. See Comité Maritime International
  • Coal, 275, 636
  • Coastal Express, 1012
  • Coastal state control, 1062–1067
  • Coastal states
  • COFR. See Certificates of financial responsibility
  • Colliding ships, 667–690
    • admissibility of pollution claims
      • by parties suffering pollution damage, 681–682
      • by the owners of the other ship, 675–676
    • Agip Abruzzo, collision with Moby Prince, 667. See also Agip Abruzzo
    • Atlantic Empress, collision with Aegean Captain, 667. See also Atlantic Empress
    • Baltic Carrier, collision with Tern, 669. See also Baltic Carrier
    • Collision Convention
      • apportionment of blame, 670–674
      • background to, 671
      • non-contracting states, application in, 671
    • compulsory insurance
      • direct rights against insurers, 675
    • Estrella Pampeana, collision with Sea Parana, 608, 667
    • Ever Decent, collision with Norwegian Dream, 667, 915–916
    • Evoikos, collision with Orapin Global, 667. See also Evoikos
    • Hebei Spirit, struck by crane barge Samsung No. 1, 667. See also Hebei Spirit
    • Independenta, collision with Evrialy, 667. See also Independenta
    • innocent cargo rule, 672, 674, 681, 686
    • insurance of liabilities, 689–690, 779–781
    • liability for claims
      • by parties suffering pollution damage
        • apportionment of blame, 670–674
        • Brussels Collision Convention, 670–673
        • domestic laws
        • limitation of liability, 677–678
        • time limit, 674–675
      • by owners of colliding ship
        • contribution claims, 678–688
          • admissibility of claims, 681–682
          • Brussels Collision Convention, 680–685
          • liability to pay contribution, 679–86
          • limitation of liability, 687
          • restrictions on claim for contribution, 682–685
          • domestic laws
            • United Kingdom, 685
            • United States, 686
          • time limit, 686–687
    • limitation of liability
      • to parties suffering pollution damage, 677–678
      • to owners of colliding ship (contribution claim), 687
      • to compensation bodies bringing recourse claims, 688–689
    • Maritime Conventions Act 1911 (UK), 672, 680, 683
    • Mont Louis, collision with Olau Britannia, 270, 667
    • Nagasaki Spirit, collision with Ocean Blessing, 667. See also Nagasaki Spirit
    • parties suffering pollution damage, 668–678
      • limitation of liability to, 677–678
    • pollution caused by both ships, 678
    • recourse claims by compensation bodies, 688–689
    • Running Down Clause (RDC), 689–690, 779–781
    • spilling and non-spilling ships, 668–670
    • Tarpenbek, collision with Sir Geraint, 669. See also Tarpenbek
    • time limits
      • claims by parties suffering pollution damage, 674–675
      • claims by owners of colliding ship (contribution claims), 686–687
  • Collision Convention. See Colliding ships
  • Collision insurance, 779–781
    • cargo, 780–781
    • Civil Liability Conventions, 779
    • contamination of other ship, 781
    • costs of pollution preventive measures, 780
    • expenses, 779, 781
    • general average, 781
    • hull insurance, 779–781
    • IOPC Funds, subrogation rights arising from, 167
    • liability, 779–781
    • Oil Pollution Act 1990 (United States), 193
    • pollution
      • liability to owners of other ship, 780
        • for contamination of the other ship or her cargo, 781
        • for expenses relating to pollution, 781
        • for liabilities incurred in respect of pollution, 780
      • liability to third parties, 781
    • preventive measures (pollution), 781
    • remedies, 779
    • Running Down Clause, 779
    • shipowners, 780–781
    • special compensation, 781
    • strict liability for pollution, 779
    • third parties, 781
  • Combination carriers, 89, 90, 246, 247, 248
  • Comité Maritime International (CMI), 12–13
    • Civil Liability Convention 1969, 12–13, 14–15
    • Colloquium, Genoa (1992), 369
    • comparative law study, 369
    • Conferences
      • (1969), Tokyo
        • Draft Civil Liability Convention, 12–13, 14–15
      • (1981), Montreal
        • Draft HNS Convention, 270
        • Draft Salvage Convention, 546–547
      • (1990), Paris
        • amendment of York-Antwerp Rules 1974, 756, 756–758
      • (1994), Sydney
        • CMI Guidelines on Oil Pollution Damage, 364, 369
        • York-Antwerp Rules 1994, 755–771
    • details of, 12–13
    • Guidelines on Oil Pollution Damage, 364, 369
    • Hazardous and Noxious Substances Convention 1996, 270
    • Maritime Law Associations, 12, 369
    • Salvage Convention 1989, 546–547
    • York-Antwerp Rules
  • Communications equipment, 877
  • Companies
  • Compensation. See also Civil Liability Conventions, Damages, Fund Conventions, Interim payments, IOPC Funds, Liability funds, Special compensation
    • Amoco Cadiz, 27–28
    • calculation, 358
    • charterers, 640–641
    • Civil Liability Conventions. See under Civil Liability Conventions
    • claims, 364
    • Comité Maritime International, 369
    • economic loss. See Economic loss
    • Fund Conventions. See under Fund Conventions
    • Hazardous and Noxious Substances Convention 1996, 269–293
    • intervention, 903
    • marine environment, damage to. See Marine environment
    • National Contingency Plan, 958
    • natural resources, 478
    • Oil Pollution Act 1990 (United States), 32, 55, 62, 68, 197, 198–200, 213, 228–229, 231, 234, 434, 515
    • preventive measures, costs, 371–406 passim
    • salvage, 536, 604–604. See also Special compensation
    • supplementary, 29, 161, 169, 257
    • Tanio, 28–29, 154, 360, 438, 461
    • Torrey Canyon, 11–12, 269, 270
    • workers, 22, 270, 278, 387, 435
  • Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation and Liability Act 1980 (United States). See CERCLA
  • Compromise. See Settlements
  • Conciliation, 903, 999
  • Conduct. See also Human error, Wilful misconduct
    • arrest of ships, 135
    • barring limitation
      • Civil Liability Convention 1969, 116, 130, 285
      • Civil Liability Convention 1992, 113, 119, 130, 135, 285
      • guarantor, effect on, 127
      • Hazardous and Noxious Substances Convention 1996, 285
      • IOPC Funds, 149
      • London Convention 1976, 113, 116, 119, 801–803
    • insurance, 127
    • jurisdiction, 130
    • limitation of liability, 116–117, 119, 130, 149
    • Oil Pollution Act 1990 (United States), 210
  • Confiscation of ship, 737–738
    • P & I cover, 738
  • Conflict of laws, 43, 178, 232, 1114–1117, 1121–1124
  • Consequential loss
  • Constructive total loss, 746, 775, 777, 778
    • wrecks and dumping, 989
  • Containers
    • certification, 882
    • hazardous and noxious substances, 633, 881–882
    • Hazardous and Noxious Substances Convention 1996, 282
    • labelling, 634
  • Contaminated sites, 337
  • Contiguous zones
    • criminal offences, 1132
    • definition, 1132
    • United States, 181
  • Continental Shelf
    • Oil Pollution Act 1990 (Untied States), 207
    • Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act Amendments (United States), 32, 40–41
  • Contingency fees, 365
  • Contingency plans. See also National Contingency Plan
    • clean-up costs, 384
    • equipment, 384
    • negligence, 238
    • OPRC 1990, 924–925
    • public authorities, 892
    • response measures in the United States, 932–959
    • Salvage Convention 1989, 909
    • sheltered waters, 910
    • shipboard oil pollution emergency plans, 833
    • United States, 238
  • Contractors
    • claims for costs of clean-up and preventive measures taken by, 373–374, 385, 587–590
  • Contracts. See also Contractors, Privity of contract
    • carriage
    • CERCLA (United States), 312, 318
    • economic loss, 422, 471
    • interference with, 422
    • P&I Clubs, 729, 746–747
    • salvage, see Salvage
    • ship management, 656
  • Contributions
    • CERCLA (United States), 317–319
    • general average, 770–774
    • IOPC Funds, to, see IOPC Funds
    • Oil Pollution Act 1990 (United States), 212–214, 233
    • United States, 20, 236
  • Contributory negligence
    • Civil Liability Conventions, 101, 104
    • economic loss, 441
    • Hazardous and Noxious Substances Convention 1996, 282
    • navigational aids, 101, 104
  • Control of Harmful Anti-fouling Systems on Ships, 847–850
  • Convention. See Treaties and conventions
  • Cosco Busan, 68–69
    • bunker fuel
      • carriage alleged to be “ultrahazardous activity” under California State law, 493
      • notable spillage, 256
    • charterers, potential liability highlighted, 610
    • common law claims, 235
    • criminal charges
      • false statements, 1139
      • navigational errors, 1134
    • non-tank vessel response plans, change of policy, 599, 981
  • Costs. See Clean-up costs
  • Crew. See Manning
  • Criminal liability, 1073–1154
    • air pollution, 1090
    • bail
      • to release individuals
      • to release ships, 1083
    • custodial penalties, restrictions on, 1097–1099
    • defendants, 1087
    • detention of seafarers
    • discharge of garbage, 1089–1090
    • discharge of harmful substances in packaged form, 1088–1089
    • discharge of noxious liquid substances, 1075, 1083–1084, 1088
    • discharge of oil, 1073–1153 passim
    • discharge of sewage, 1089
    • domestic laws, 1114–1127 passim
      • relationship with international law, 1114–1127
      • Erika, 1116–1117
      • EU Directive on Criminal Sanctions for Ship-source Pollution, 1117–1127
      • exclusive economic zone, 1123
      • French legislation, 1116–1117
      • INTERTANKO case (ECJ), 1122–1127
      • MARPOL 1973 Conference records, 1125–1127
      • territorial sea, 1124–1127
      • UNCLOS, 1114–1127, passim
    • dumping of waste, 1090–1091
    • Erika, 1116–1117
    • EU Directive on Criminal Sanctions for Ship-source Pollution, 1117–1127
    • evidence, 1091–1096
    • fair treatment of defendants, 1103–1114
    • French legislation, 1116–1117
    • imprisonment, restrictions on, 1097–1099
    • London Dumping Convention 1972, under, 1090
    • MARPOL and domestic laws, 1115
    • MARPOL Annexes I and II, under, 1075–1088
    • MARPOL Annexes III–VI, under, 1088–1090
    • national laws. See domestic laws
    • penalties, 1096–1103
      • aggravating and mitigating factors, 1099–1103
        • ability to pay fine, 1102–1103
        • action to prevent recurrence, 1101
        • amount spilt, 1101
        • cause of violation, 1101
        • clean-up, 1101
        • co-operation with authorities, 1102
        • extent of damage, 1101–1102
        • guilty plea, 1102
        • intent, 1100
        • motive, 1100
        • onus of proof, 1100
        • previous convictions, 1103
        • regret expressed, 1102
        • response measures, 1099
      • custodial penalties, restrictions on, 1097–1099
      • false statements, 1098–1099
      • imprisonment, restrictions on, 1097–1099
      • internal waters, offences in, 1098
      • level, 1099–1103
      • mitigating factors, 1099–1103, and see aggravating and mitigating factors
      • maritime safety issues, 1098
      • obstruction of justice, 1098–1099
      • types, 1097–1099
      • violation of laws other than for prevention of pollution, 1098–1099
    • regional laws. See domestic laws
    • SOLAS, under, 1090
    • United States, 1081–1082. See also Criminal liability (United States)
  • Criminal liability (United States)
  • Criminalization
    • fair treatment of defendants, 1103–1114
  • CRISTAL, 17
    • background, 17
    • cargo interests, 17, 26
    • Contract, 32
    • Cristal Ltd, 31
    • extension, 25–26, 30–32, 73–74
    • Fund Conventions,
      • comparison with, 17
    • introduction of, 17
    • membership, 17
    • negotiations leading to, 27
    • OCIMF, 17
    • PLATO, 31
    • purpose, 17
    • revision, 25–26, 30–32
    • small tankers, 26
    • termination, 73–74
    • threat removal measures, 405–406
    • tonnage, 31
    • TOVALOP, 31–32
      • differences between, 17
    • TOVALOP Supplement
      • relationship with, 31–32
  • Criteria for admissibility of claims (IOPC Funds)
    • adoption of, 366–367
    • background to, 366–367
    • clean-up operations and preventive measures
      • cost of measures, 383–384
      • fixed costs, 388–389
      • reasonableness of measures, 382–383
    • damage to marine environment
      • exclusion of claims other than for costs of reasonable measures of reinstatement, 481–482
      • funding of studies, 488
      • reinstatement measures, 487–488
    • economic loss
      • decided cases, 446–475
      • general criteria, 437–440
      • measures to prevent or minimise economic loss, 440–441
    • legal status of, 367–368
  • Crude oil washing, 824, 868
  • Crystal Rubino, 1083
  • “Damage” (Hazardous and Noxious Substances Convention 1996), definition, 276–277
  • Damage to property. See Property damage
  • “Damage to the environment” (Salvage Convention 1989). See also Salvage
    • definition, 550
    • location of damage, 552–553
    • mid-ocean casualty, 552–553
    • nature of damage, 550–551
      • economic loss, 550
    • scale of damage, 551–552
    • substantial, 551–552
    • threat of damage
      • apprehension of danger, 558–559
      • degree of risk, 558
      • source of threat, 558
  • Damages
  • Dangerous goods. See also Hazardous and noxious substances
    • charterer’s liability, 633
  • Darling, Gerald, 543
  • De minimis provisions, 313
  • Declarations, 316–317
  • Deepwater Port Act (United States), 32, 44–46
    • class actions, 45
    • clean-up costs, 46
    • Coast Guard, 45–46
    • damages, 45–46
    • Deepwater Port Liability Fund, 46
    • “deepwater ports”, definition of, 44–45
    • defences, 46
    • financial responsibility, 46
    • fines, 45–46
    • joint and several liability, 45
    • jurisdiction, 45
    • licensing, 45, 46
    • limitation of liability, 45, 46
    • Louisiana Offshore Oil Port (LOOP), 45
    • marine environment, 45
    • natural resources, 45, 497–498
    • negligence, 45–46
    • Oil Pollution Act 1990, 44, 193–194, 211–212
    • penalties, 45
    • privity and knowledge, 45–46
    • strict liability, 46
    • subrogation, 46
    • wilful misconduct, 45, 46
  • Delay
  • Demise charters. See Bareboat charters
  • Department of Homeland Security, 934, 952
  • Desalination plants, 407, 408
  • Detention of ships
  • Director of IOPC Funds. See under IOPC Funds
  • Directors, criminal liability, 1141–1144
  • Dismantling of vessels, 1026, 1029–1049
  • Dispersal, natural, see Dissipation
  • Dispersants, use of, 377–378, 958–959, 973
  • Dissipation, natural, 295, 359–361
  • Dissolved corporations, 665
  • Diversion of ships, 470
  • Dobrudja, 1100
  • Documentary credits, 219, 222
  • Documentary sources, 1161–1162
  • Dolly
    • claim for cost of removing cargo of bitumen from sunken wreck, 380
    • vessel adapted for carriage of oil, 89
  • Domestic laws. See National laws
  • Double bottoms. See also Bunker spills, Double hulls
    • damaged double bottoms, cost of measures to prevent escape of bunkers,
  • Double hulls, 829–831
    • alternatives, 869–870
    • application, 867–868
    • benefits, 870
    • certification, 870
    • definition, 868
    • dimensions, 870
    • double bottoms, 870
    • hydrostatic balancing load, 869
    • Intermediate Oil Tight Deck with Double Sides, 869
    • International Maritime Organization, 867, 869–870
    • lightering, 875, 876
    • MARPOL, 870
    • Oil Pollution Act 1990 (United States), 866–870
    • segregated ballast tanks, 868
    • standards, 866–867
    • timetable, 866–869
    • US Coast Guard, 866–870
    • washing, 868
  • Drills, 985–986
  • Drugs, 865, 1142, 1146–1147
  • Dry cargo vessels, 56, 66, 67, 980
  • Due diligence
  • Dumping at sea, 989, 1000–1014
    • controls, 1005–1013
      • alternative means of disposal, 1008–1009
      • criteria governing the issue of permits, 1007–1009
      • emergencies, 1009–1010
      • force majeure and emergencies, 1009–1010
      • general permits, 1007
      • prohibitions (black list), 1006–1007
      • reasons of health or safety of life, 1010–1012
      • special permits (grey list), 1007
    • legal framework, 1000–1001
    • London Dumping Convention 1972, 1001–1013. See also London Dumping Convention 1972
    • Stockholm Declaration, 1001
    • UNCLOS, 1000
  • Ecological damage. See Environmental damage
  • Economic loss, 415–475
    • Aegean Sea,
      • contamination of water supplies, 452
      • destruction of shellfish stocks, 447–449
      • employees, 473–475
      • ferry operators, 464
      • fish porters, 455–456
      • general principles, 438–440
      • government orders, 447–449
      • net repairers, 455
      • ports, claims relating to, 469–470
      • preventive measures, economic loss caused by, 402–404
      • price, reduction in, 458
      • shipping, effect of oil spill on
        • delay, 469
        • diversion of, 470
        • ferry operators, 470
      • social security payments, 474
      • university study, claim reliant on, 441
      • unlicensed activities, 474–475
    • angling clubs, 471, 472
    • agriculture, 470–472
    • aquaculture, 415, 446–457
    • Braer
      • agriculture, effect on, 470–472
      • box manufacturer, 456
      • Burra Haaf claims, 449, 450
      • commercial decisions, claims resulting from, 452–453
      • consequential loss, 471–472
      • damage to stocks, 451
      • diver, 455
      • employees, 472–474
      • fish processors, reduced supplies, 453–455
      • fish trader, reduced supplies
        • Billingsgate, 454
        • Norway, 455
      • general principles, 438
      • haulage companies, 456–457
      • ice factory, 456
      • Landcatch claim, 442–445, 456
      • loss of market, 457–458
      • marketing campaigns, 458–459
      • net makers and repairers, 455
      • offal collector, 456
      • prices and sales reduction, 457–458
      • salmon farms
      • smolt suppliers, 442–445, 456
      • tourism promotion, 467–469
      • unlicensed activities, 474–475
      • wild fish, reduced catches, 449–451
    • bright line rule, 423, 430
    • bunker spills, 797–799
    • business interruption, 469–470
    • causation, 439, 441
    • CERCLA (United States), 416, 430–432
    • charterers of ships, 469–470
    • civil law, 416, 441–447
    • Civil Liability Convention 1969, 105, 113, 440–441, 444
    • claims, 357, 365–366, 415, 417, 438–440, 441, 446, 457, 470–472
    • clean-up, 372
    • clean-up costs, 371
    • commercial fishermen in United States, 424–426
    • common law, 416–430, 442–446
    • compensation, 444
    • consequential, 416, 448, 471–472
    • contamination, 415, 425, 438–440, 441–446
    • contracts, 422, 471
    • contributory negligence, 441
    • costs, 437, 440–441
    • damages, 435
    • decided cases, 446–475
    • definition, 432
    • delay to ships, 469–470
    • diversion of shipping, 470
    • employees, 459–460, 472–474
    • Erika
      • car ferry operators, 464
      • causation, 461, 468, 471
      • establishments outside polluted area, 462
      • marketing campaigns, 440, 459
      • measures to correct inaccurate reporting, 468
      • reasonableness of costs, 468–469
      • millennium party cancelled, 461
      • pure economic loss, 368, 454, 461
      • salt production, loss of, 471
      • “second degree” tourism claims, 368, 442, 462
      • tax revenue, loss of, 466, 467
      • tour operators, 462
    • Exxon Valdez
      • Alaskan state law, 436
      • commercial fishermen, 425
      • media coverage, effect on tourism, 363
      • native corporations, 425
    • false invoices, 475
    • ferry operators, 469–470
    • fishing and related industries
      • aquacultural establishments, 446–449, 451–452, 457–458
      • box manufacturer, 456
      • buyers, 453–455
      • cessation or reduction of activities, 452
      • commercial fishermen in United States, 424–426
      • contamination of equipment, 452
      • contamination of stocks
      • contamination of water supplies, 452
      • depuration, 447–449
      • destruction of stocks, 447, 448–449
      • diver, 455
      • employees
        • claims by, 459, 473
        • claims by employers, 459, 472
        • social security payments, 474
      • equipment, contamination of, 452
      • exclusion zones
      • false invoices, 475
      • feed suppliers, 456
      • fish buyers, 453–455
      • fish farms, 447–449, 451–452, 457–458
      • fish porters, 455
      • fish processors
        • loss of market, 457–458
        • reduced supplies of fish, 453
      • fish selling agents, 453–455
      • fish traders, 453–455
      • fishermen, 424–426, 446–452, 457–458
      • fishing bans
      • fishing industry and related claims, 446–459
      • future income, loss of, 451
      • government orders, 447–449, 451–452
      • harvesting restrictions
      • haulage and transport companies, 456–457
      • ice factory, 456
      • interruption, 451–452
      • invoices, 475
      • loss of market, 457
      • marketing campaigns, 440–441, 458–460
      • net makers and repairers, 455
      • offal collector, 456
      • porters, 455–456
      • price reduction, 457
      • processors
        • loss of market, 457–458
        • reduced supplies of fish, 453–455
      • proof
        • technical issues
          • university study, claim reliant on, 441
      • public confidence, 447–449
      • public perceptions, 363. See also publicity reduced catches, 449–451
      • reduced demand for goods or services, 455–457
      • reduction in prices and/or sales, 457
      • sales reduction, 457
      • salmon, farming methods, 447
      • sampling, 448–449
      • selling agents, 453–455
      • slaughter of produce, 447, 448
      • smolt suppliers, 442, 456
      • stocks, contamination of
        • fish farms, 446
        • wild fish and other sea food, 449–451
      • testing, 448
      • traders, 453–455
      • university study, claim reliant on, 441
      • unlicensed activities, 474
      • water supplies, contamination of, 452
      • wild fish and other sea food, 449–451
    • foreseeability, 417, 419, 432
    • France, 430
    • Fund Conventions, 440–441
    • future income, loss of, 451
    • Haven
      • criteria for admissibility of claims, background to, 366, 438
      • tourism
        • beach facilities, operators of, 463
        • establishments at uncontaminated locations in polluted area, 461
        • establishments outside polluted area, 461–462
        • general principles, 460
        • hotels, 461
        • locations not dependent on, 461
        • multiple claims, equal treatment at same locality, 461
        • promotion campaigns, 467–469
        • retailers, 462
        • Savona claims, 461
        • “touristic image”, loss of, 467
        • travel agents, 463
      • yacht flooring fees, 472
    • insurance, 437, 472
    • interference with contractual claims, 422
    • invoices, 475
    • IOPC Funds, 437–441, 446–475
    • limitation of liability, 431
    • Lloyd’s Open Form, 543
    • loss of income, 474–475
    • loss of market, 457–458
    • loss of use or enjoyment, 472
    • Louisiana, 435, 436
    • marketing, 440–441, 458
    • media coverage, adverse effects of, 363, 440–441, 458, 467–469
    • miscellaneous types of claim, 470–471
    • national courts, 437, 441–446
    • national laws, 417–430
    • natural resources, 484, 485, 491, 498
    • negligence, 237, 417, 422, 429, 435
    • nuisance, 435
    • Oil Pollution Act 1990 (United States), 197, 200, 407, 416, 417, 426, 432–434
    • Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act Amendments (United States), 40
    • outline of problems, 415
    • physical damage, 416–418, 420, 422–424, 431
    • pollution, 424–429
    • pollution damage, 437, 442, 444
    • ports, 469–470
    • prevention, 372, 440–441
    • private actions, 430–432
    • property damage, 407, 471–472
    • proprietary rights, 430, 433
    • proximate cause, 433
    • proximity, 429, 432, 438, 442–443
    • public perceptions, 363. See also publicity
    • publicity, 363, 440–441, 457–458, 458–459, 462, 467–469
    • pure, 416–419, 423, 429–430, 432, 433, 438, 446
    • Robins rule, 420–422, 423, 425, 427, 431–434, 436–437
    • Salvage Convention 1989
      • “damage to the environment”, 550
    • Sea Empress
      • angling clubs, 471, 472
      • bed-and-breakfast accommodation, 461
      • civil engineering contractor, 471
      • exclusion zone, imposition of, 451
      • false invoices, 475
      • fish processors, 452–453
      • fish sales companies, 453–455
      • fishing ban
        • imposition of, 451
        • losses sustained after lifting of, 452
      • goods and services, suppliers of, 465–466
      • harvesting restrictions, imposition of, 451–452
      • haulage companies, 456
      • hotels, 461
      • ice-cream and frozen foods suppliers, 466
      • invoices, 475
      • medical practice, 464
      • polluted area, tourist establishments outside, 461–462
      • postcard manufacturer, 466
      • self-catering accommodation, 461
      • tourism promotion campaign, 467–469
      • tourism, effect on, 460
      • transport companies, 456–457
      • unlicensed activities, 474–475
      • wholesaler, 465
    • shipping, 469–470
    • social security, 474
    • state law, 434–437
    • strict liability, 416, 436
    • technical issues, 363
    • tourism
      • beaches, operators of facilities on, 463
      • bed-and-breakfast accommodation, 461
      • camp sites, 461
      • car ferry operators, 464
      • cash-and-carry wholesaler, 465
      • establishments at uncontaminated locations in polluted areas, 461
      • establishments outside polluted area, 461–462
      • ferry operators, 464, 470
      • general principles, 460
      • goods and services, suppliers of, 463–464, 464–466
      • hotels, 461–462
      • image, loss of, 467
      • laundry services, 466
      • medical practice, 464
      • postcard manufacturer, 466
      • promotion campaigns, 467
      • public bodies, 466–467
      • public perceptions, 363. See also Media reports, Public expectations
      • restaurants, 461–462
      • retailers, 462–463
      • “second degree” claims, 368, 442, 462
      • self-catering accommodation, 461
      • tax revenue, 466–467
      • tour operators, 462
      • tourism promotion campaigns, 467
      • “touristic image”, loss of, 467
      • travel agents, 463
      • wholesale suppliers, 465
    • traditional principles, 416
    • treaties and conventions, 437–475
    • United Kingdom, 418–419
    • United States, 237, 241, 417, 419–429, 430–437
    • unlicensed activities, 474–475
    • yachts, 472
  • Eleni V
    • dispersants, use of, 377–378
    • State intervention, 904–905
  • Emergencies. See also Contingency plans
    • National Contingency Plan, 943–945
    • Oil Spill Liability Trust Fund, 214–215
    • OPRC 1990, 921–922
    • response, 891
    • salvage, 891
    • shipboard marine pollution emergency plans, 837, 896–898
    • shipboard oil pollution emergency plans, 833, 896–898, 922–923
  • Emissions, 840–844, 883–887, 1137–1138
  • Employees. See also Manning
  • Enforcement. See also Enforcement of Judgments alcohol testing, 1146
  • Enforcement of judgments
    • Civil Liability Conventions 1971 and 1992, 128, 131–136
    • Fund Conventions 1971 and 1992, relevance to, 132
    • Hazardous and Noxious Substances Convention 1996, 293
    • Oil Pollution Act 1990 (United States), 225–226
  • Environmental damage. See also Marine environment, Natural resources
    • assessment. See Natural resources bunker spills, 255
    • compensation. See Marine environment, Natural resources
    • “damage to the environment” (Salvage Convention 1989)
      • definition, 550–553
      • location of damage, 552–553
      • mid-ocean casualty, 552
      • nature of damage, 550–551
        • economic loss, 550
      • scale of damage, 551–552
      • substantial, 551
      • threat of damage
        • apprehension of danger, 558–559
        • degree of risk, 558
        • source of threat, 558
    • damages. See Natural resources
    • Hazardous and Noxious Substances Convention 1996
      • “damage”, definition, 276–277
    • Ports and Waterways Safety Act (United States), 856
    • salvors. See also Salvage
      • duties of salvor, 553–554
      • duties of shipowner and other parties, 554–555
      • efforts to prevent or minimise pollution damage
        • compensation outside the law of salvage, 587–590
        • remuneration in the law of salvage
          • legal framework, 536–537
          • Lloyd’s Open Form 1980, 543–546
          • Lloyd’s Open Form 1990, 547–548
          • Lloyd’s Open Form 1995, 548–549
          • modern law and practice, development of, 542–549
          • Salvage Convention 1989, 546–547, 549–551
            • “damage to the environment”, definition. See above
            • enhanced awards (Art. 13), 555–556
            • special compensation (Art. 14), 556–567
          • traditional principles, 537–542
      • liability for pollution damage, 590–594
      • United States
        • National Research Council (NRC) reassessment, 603–604
        • Oil Pollution Act 1990, 599–601
        • remuneration, 596–599
    • Tank Vessel Act 1936 (United States), 858
    • technical issues, 359–362, 478–479
      • ITOPF paper, Environmental Damage, 359, 478
  • Environmental Protection Agency (United States) CERCLA (United States), 307, 314, 315, 322–323, 327–330, 334, 341–342, 345–352, 721–725
  • Equipment, 384, 387–390, 455, 565, 603, 877–878, 976–977
  • Erika
    • bibliography, 74
    • cargo owner, liability for pollution, 610, 615, 620–621
    • changes in law and practice, led to
      • Bunkers Convention, 76
      • coastal state control, 1065
      • EU Directive on Criminal Sanctions for Shipsource Pollution, 1118
      • increase in compensation limits, 72, 118, 153
      • Maritime Assistance Services (MAS), 894
      • measures of disputed validity in international law, 1120
      • quality shipping, measures to promote, 1068
      • single hull tankers
        • accelerated phase-out, 830
        • ban on carriage of heavy grades of oil, 830
      • Special Coastal Maritime Court, 1083
      • STOPIA and TOPIA, 168
      • Supplementary Fund, 168
      • unilateral measures, 816
    • charterer, liability for pollution
      • channelling provisions, 625–626
      • vetting procedures, 620–621, 624
      • waste, disposal of, 623
    • CLC 92 and Fund Convention 1992
      • admissibility of claims
        • car ferry operators, 464
        • causation, 461, 468, 471
        • damage to the environment, 487
        • marketing campaigns, 440, 459
          • measures to correct inaccurate reporting, 468
          • reasonableness of costs, 468–469
        • millennium party cancelled, 461
        • moral damages, 487
          • pure economic loss, 368, 454, 461
          • salt production, loss of, 471
          • tax revenue, loss of, 466, 467
          • tour operators, 462
        • channelling provisions
        • claims for compensation, number of, 133, 365, 461
        • interim payments, restrictions on, 161
        • major oil company, standing last in queue for compensation, 639–640
        • maximum amount of compensation date of conversion into national currency, 155
      • criminal proceedings
        • civil claims, relationship with, 1106
        • French legislation, 1116–1117
        • international law, relationship with, 1116–1117
        • Paris High Court, 109–111, 1068, 1116–1117
        • delay before trial, 1106–1107
        • detention of master, 1106
        • disposal of waste, 623
        • economic loss
          • car ferry operators, 464
          • causation, 461, 468
          • criteria of IOPC Fund
          • decisions of French courts
            • “second degree” tourism claims, 368, 442, 462
            • establishments outside polluted area, 462
            • marketing campaigns, 440, 459
            • millennium party cancelled, 461
            • tax revenue, loss of, 466, 467
            • tour operators, 462
  • Erika I, 75
  • Erika II, 75, 920
  • Erika III, 78, 916, 921
  • EU maritime policy, effect on, 79
  • EU Waste Framework Directive, liability under, 623
  • fair treatment of defendants, 1106–1107
  • French courts
    • civil law approach, 369, 442
    • decisions, 442
      • admissibility of claims
        • car ferry operators, 464
        • causation, 461, 468, 471
        • damage to the environment, 487
        • marketing campaigns, 440, 459
        • measures to correct inaccurate reporting, 468
        • reasonableness of costs, 468–469
      • millennium party cancelled, 461
      • moral damages, 487
      • pure economic loss, 368, 454, 461
      • salt production, loss of, 471
      • tax revenue, loss of, 466, 467
      • tour operators, 462
    • IOPC Fund’s criteria, status, 368, 369
    • number of courts competent to deal with pollution claims, 129
    • heavy fuel oil, 76, 360
    • incident, 74
    • major oil company
      • approval clauses, 644
      • approval of ship, liability for, 615, 620–621
      • channelling provisions, denied benefit, 625–626
      • response costs, 639–640
      • standing last in queue for compensation, 639–640
    • Third Intersessional Working Group, 1992 Fund, 75–76, 172
    • vetting procedures, 615, 620–621, 624
    • waste, disposal, 623
  • Escort vessels, 876–877
  • Estrella Pampeana
    • collision with Sea Parana, 667
    • waste, liability of cargo owner to remove spilt oil, 608
  • EU Directive on Criminal Sanctions for Ship-source Pollution, 1117–1127
  • European Waste Shipment Regulation, 1024–1026
    • classification of shipments, 1026
    • export of waste for disposal, 1024
    • export of waste for recovery, 1024–1026
    • “waste”, meaning, 1024
  • Eurysthenes, 741–742
  • Ever Decent
    • collision with Norwegian Dream, 667
    • SOSREP, 915–916
  • Evoikos
    • collision with Orapin Global, 667, 788
    • pollution
      • affecting more than one state, 114
      • claims against colliding vessel, 779
      • claims outstanding against 1971 Fund, 138
  • Exclusive economic zones (EEZ)
    • Civil Liability Convention 1992, 5, 72, 84
    • Clean Water Act (United States), 302
    • establishment, notification, 84
    • financial responsibility, 218–219
    • fisheries, 181
    • Fund Convention 1992, 5, 72, 84, 144
    • Hazardous and Noxious Substances Convention 1996, 272–273, 280
    • intervention, 900–901
    • IOPC Funds, 144
    • lightering, 876
    • Oil Pollution Act 1990 (United States), 177, 196, 866
    • P&I Clubs
      • scope of geographical exclusion, United States, 745
    • pollution preventive standards
      • enforcement in EEZ by port and coastal states, 1063–1066
      • regulation in EEZ by port and coastal states, 1063
    • standards. See above, pollution preventive standards
    • state intervention, 900
    • transshipment, 876
    • United States, 181
  • Exercises, 969, 985–988
  • Expenses. See also Costs, Clean-up costs, Preventive measures
    • charterers, 639–642
    • clean-up costs, 372–373, 375, 383, 404
    • collision, 779, 780
    • general average, 755, 768–770
    • limitation funds, 124
    • Lloyd’s Open Form 1980, 545
    • OPRC 1990, 925–926
    • owner’s expenses
      • HNS Fund, payable by, 289–290
      • IOPC Funds, payable by, 124–125, 375
      • Limitation Convention 1976, not ranking as claim against fund, 798–799, 375
      • national laws, 375
      • ranking as claim against limitation fund Civil Liability Conventions, 124, 373
        • Hazardous and Noxious Substances Convention 1996, 286
      • salvage and related operations, 392–405
    • P&I cover, 732–740, 745–746
    • Salvage Convention 1989, 402–404, 555, 556, 561–562, 564–565
    • shipowner’s. See owner’s expenses
    • special compensation, 564–566
    • sue and labour, 738–740
  • Explosions
    • Hazardous and Noxious Substances Convention 1996, 269–270, 276, 276
    • special compensation, 558
  • Export controls on waste shipments, 1023–1026
  • Extraterritoriality
    • United States, 4–5
  • Exxon Valdez, 48–52
    • alter ego, 664
    • charterers, 639
    • clean-up, 379
    • clean-up costs, 48–49
    • criminal charges, 48, 1127, 1129, 1148
    • damages, 48–49
      • punitive, 49
    • economic loss, 425–426, 427
    • fines, 48–49
    • habitats, 48
    • indigenous people, 48, 49
    • inquiries, 51–52
    • insurance, 50–51
    • legal proceedings, 48–50
    • “loss of image” claims, 51, 363
    • manning, 873
    • marine environment, 48
    • National Contingency Plan, 51
    • natural resources, 477
    • negligence, 1148
    • Oil Pollution Act 1990 (United States), 52–53, 54
    • OPRC 1990, 921
  • P&I Clubs, 739, 745
    • property damage, 49
    • publicity, 51, 363
    • response, 51
    • salvage, 393
    • seaworthiness, 51
    • Tank Vessel Act 1936 (United States), 859
    • technical issues, 363
    • wilful misconduct, 51
  • Facilities
  • Fair treatment of defendants, 1103–1114. See also Criminal liability
  • False invoices, 475
  • Fanti, 751
  • Fast Independence, 1059
  • Federal Water Pollution Control Act (United States). See Clean Water Act
  • Ferries, 464, 469, 470
  • Finance. See Ship finance
  • Financial responsibility. See also Certificates of Financial Responsibility
  • Financial security. See Arrest, Guarantors, Security
  • Fines
    • CERCLA (United States), 314, 323–324, 351–352
    • clean-up costs, 1140
    • Clean Water Act (United States), 39–40, 188–191
    • criminal offences, 1128, 1130, 1133–1136, 1137–1139
    • Deepwater Port Act (United States), 45
    • Federal Sentencing Guidelines, 1140
    • financial responsibility, 218
    • guidance, 1139–1140
    • hazardous waste, 351–352
    • loss doubling, 1135
    • New York and Other Harbors Deposit of Refuse Prohibition Act 1888 (United States), 182
    • Oil Pollution Act 1990 (United States), 54
    • Oil Spill Liability Trust Fund, 228
    • Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act Amendments (United States), 41
    • P&I Club cover, 737–738
    • Refuse Act (United States), 183
    • Sentencing Reform Act 1984 (United States), 1139
    • United States, 8–9
    • wrecks, 184
  • Fires
    • Hazardous and Noxious Substances Convention 1996, 269–270, 274, 276–277
    • property damage, 412, 413
    • salvage, 604
    • special compensation, 558
  • Fishing and related industries. See also Fishing vessels
  • Fishing vessels
    • bunker spills, 258
    • Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act Amendments (United States), 40
  • Flag state control, 1052–1055
    • administration, 1053–1055
      • enhancement of flag state control, 1054–1055
      • guidelines on flag state performance, 1054–1055
      • IMO Member State Audit Scheme, 1054
    • international law, 1052–1053
      • casualty inquiries, 1053
      • investigation and prosecution of violations, 1052
      • survey and certification of ships, 1052
  • Fleet Factors, 719–721
  • Floating production, storage and offloading units, 91
  • Floating storage units, 91
  • Florida
    • cargo owners, 613
    • certificates of financial responsibility, 613
    • strict liability, 22–23
  • “Flying Dutchmen”, 909, 910
  • Foreseeability
    • economic loss, 417, 419, 432
    • fisheries, 453
    • hazardous and noxious substances, 300
    • negligence, 236–237
    • United States, 236–237, 300
    • US hazardous and noxious substances, 300
  • Forum non conveniens, 436
  • FPSOs. See Offshore craft
  • France
    • Amoco Cadiz, 27–28
    • Civil Liability Convention 1969, 27–28
    • criminal liability, 1116–1117
    • Erika. See Erika
    • limitation of liability, 11
    • Tanio 28–29
    • Torrey Canyon, 11–12
  • Frances Hammer, 1149
  • Frixos, 1094
  • FSUs. See Offshore craft
  • Fukkol Maru No. 12, 410
  • Fund Conventions 1971 and 1992, 4, 17–19, 71–73, 137–139. See also Civil Liability Conventions 1969 and 1992, IOPC Funds
    • arrest of ships, relevance to, 133, 135
    • Brussels conference 1971, 17
    • bunker spills, 4, 256–258. See also under Civil Liability Conventions 1969 and 1992
    • cases not covered by, 5–7
    • charterers
      • claims by, 640–641, 642
      • recourse action against
        • by shipowner, 627–628
        • limitation of liability, 637–638
    • Civil Liability Conventions, relationship with, 3–4, 17–19, 81–82, 137–138
    • claims
      • admissibility and assessment, 150–151. See also claims under Civil Liability Conventions 1971 and 1992, Criteria for admissibility of claims (IOPC Funds)
      • claim settlement procedures, 157–165
      • determination and settlement, 159
      • legal proceedings, 164–165
      • manuals, 151
        • provisional payments, 160
      • compensation
        • cases in which payable, 145–151
          • damage exceeds liability limit under CLC, 149–150
          • no liability under CLC, 145–147
            • shipowner exonerated from liability, 146–147
            • unidentified ship, 145–146
            • shipowner financially incapable, 147–149
              • assets insufficient, 149
              • compulsory insurance requirements
                • not applicable, 147–149
                • not complied with, 149
              • insurance cover insufficient, 149
          • shipowner’s expenses, 150, 375
      • distribution, 155–156
      • limits
        • amounts, 153
        • conversion into national currency, 155
        • interest awarded against shipowner, effect of, 154
        • interest paid or payable by IOPC Funds, 154
        • natural phenomenon, 153
        • unit of account, 155
  • contributions. See IOPC Funds
  • CRISTAL
    • comparison with, 17, 19–20
  • criteria for admissibility of claims. See Criteria for admissibility of claims (IOPC Funds)
  • economic loss. See Economic loss enforcement of judgments against shipowners, 132
  • entry into force, 27–29, 71, 72–73, 73–74
  • exclusive economic zones, 5, 144
  • financial limits. See limit of Funds’ liability
  • geographical scope, 5, 144
  • incident. See under Civil Liability Conventions
  • indemnification of shipowners
    • background to, 17, 18
    • subrogation against shipowner or guarantor, effect on, 165–166
    • subrogation against third parties, 166
  • interest
    • payable by contributors to Funds, 142
    • payable by IOPC Funds to claimants, 151
      • effect on Funds’ liability limit, 155
    • payable by shipowner to claimants, 121–122
      • effect on Funds’ liability limit
        • 1971 Convention, 154
        • 1992 Convention, 154
  • International Maritime Organization, 71
  • IOPC Funds. See IOPC Funds limit of Funds’ liability, 153–155
    • amounts
      • 1992 Convention, 153
    • conversion into national currency 1992 Convention, 155
    • distribution of available compensation, 155–156
    • natural phenomenon, 153
    • interest, effect of. See interest
    • unit of account
      • 1992 Convention, 155
  • limitation of actions. See time limit for proceedings
  • mobile offshore units, 91
  • natural resources. See Marine Environment
  • oil, 95–97
  • oil barges, 87–88
  • owner, definition, 85–86
  • persistent oil, 96
  • pollution damage, definitions
  • preventive measures. See under Civil Liability Conventions
  • property damage, 407–411
  • Protocol 1984, 29–30, 47, 71
    • United States, decision not to ratify, 52–56
    • Protocol 1992, 71–73
    • purpose, 17–19, 368
    • receivers of oil. See IOPC Funds
    • recourse, subrogation to rights of owner, 166, 627
    • relationship between Fund Conventions, 138–139
    • salvage and related operations
    • ship
      • definitions, 86–92, 95
      • incident involving two or more, 95
      • small, 30, 131
      • tanker in ballast, 88, 89–91
      • warships, 91–92
    • ship owners, definition. See owner
    • subrogation, 165–168
    • time limits for proceedings
      • claim for compensation, 156
        • notification of proceedings under CLC, 156–157
        • legal actions against Fund, 157
      • claim for indemnification under 1971 Convention, 151
    • transitional period, 71, 117
    • United States, 29–30, 52–55
    • Working Groups. See IOPC Funds, Intersessional Working Groups
  • Funding Agreement 1980, 396, 403, 546
  • Funding Agreement 1990, 548
  • Garbage, 839–840, 864, 1129–1130
  • Gas industry. See Oil and gas industry
  • General average
  • General Excess Loss Reinsurance Contract, 731
  • Germany, 73
  • Geroi Sevastopolya, 910, 1064–1065
  • “Ghost Ships”, 1042–1045
  • Glacier Bay, 42–43
    • economic loss, Alaskan state law, 436
  • Gold francs
    • liability limit, unit of account
      • Civil Liability Convention 1969, 16–17, 114
        • Protocol 1976, 114, 121
        • conversion into national currency, 121
        • SDRs, replacement by, 114, 121
    • Fund Convention 1971, 18–19
      • conversion into national currency, 155
      • Haven, 155
      • indemnification of shipowner, 18
        • Protocol 1976, 154
        • SDRs, replacement by, 155
  • Governing law
    • P&I cover, 729
  • Government authorities. See also Public
    • authorities access to territorial seas, 905–911
    • admittance to ports, 554, 758–759, 767–768, 905–921
    • enforcement. See Enforcement
    • international compensation Conventions
      • contributory negligence, 104–105, 282
      • default in maintenance of navigational aids, 101–104, 282
      • fishing and related industries
      • orders for destruction of produce, 448
    • marine environment, claims for damage to, 482–490
    • oil spill response
      • fixed costs, 383–389
      • offshore operations, 376–378
        • use of dispersants, 377
      • onshore operations, 378
      • public expectations, 363, 376
    • salvage and related operations
      • purpose of measures, 394–402
  • intervention. See Intervention Convention 1969
  • official orders, cost of complying with general average, admissibility in
      • York-Antwerp Rules 1974, 760
      • York-Antwerp Rules 1994, 764–768
    • P&I cover, 733
    • particular average, 776
  • Pollution Hazard Clause, 777
  • preparedness, response and co-operation. See OPRC 1990
  • report of incident to, 892–894
  • United States
    • control of salvage operations, 600
    • response to an incident, 891–927
  • Grandcamp
    • dangerous cargo, liability for shipping, 634
    • Texas City Disaster 1947, 269–270
    • third party liability, 300–302
  • Greenhouse gases, 845–847
  • Group actions. See Class actions
  • Guarantees. See also Guarantors
    • condition of entry into port
    • limitation fund, establishment of by
      • Civil Liability Conventions, 120
      • Hazardous and Noxious Substances Convention 1996, 298
    • parent company. See ship finance
    • special compensation, security for payment to salvor, 567
    • ship finance, security for, 707, 713
  • Guarantors. See also Guarantees cancellation, 224
    • CERCLA (United States), 336
    • Civil Liability Conventions
      • compulsory insurance, 125–127
      • direct action against, rights of, 127, 588, 750–751
      • enforcement of judgments, relevance to, 131–132
      • IOPC Funds, liability to, 165
      • liability, 127, 750–751
      • salvor, liability to, 588
    • International Group of P&I Clubs, 57
    • Oil Pollution Act 1990 (United States), 218–228
    • P&I Clubs, 57, 750–751
    • ship finance, security for, 707, 713
  • Guidelines
    • CMI Guidelines on Claims for Oil Pollution Damage, 364, 369
    • fines, 1139–1140
    • IMO Guidelines. See Table of International Instruments and Agreements
    • National Contingency Plan, 949
    • natural resources, 529–530, 893–894
    • OPRC 1990, 923, 927
    • penalties, 1144
    • report of incident
    • response measures in the United States, 985–987
    • vessel response plans, 896–897
  • Gulf of Mexico, 875–876
  • Gulf War, 925
  • Gunny, 270
  • Habitats
    • Exxon Valdez, 48
    • Habitat Equivalency Analysis, 524
    • natural resources, 478, 524
  • Haven, 71
    • criteria for admissibility of claims, background to, 366, 438–439
    • economic loss. See under Economic loss interest on CLC limitation fund, 121–122, 154
    • limit of liability, 1971, Fund
      • conversion into national currency, 155
      • effect of interest awarded against owner, 154
      • effect of interest paid or payable by Fund, 154
    • marine environment, damage to, 483–487
    • natural resources, 483–487
    • tourism, 455–468
    • yacht mooring fees, 472
  • Hazardous and noxious substances. See also Hazardous and Noxious Convention 1996, Hazardous waste, US hazardous and noxious substances
    • abnormally dangerous activities, 240–241
    • Ariadne, 271
    • Betelgeuse, 270
    • CERCLA (United States), 220
    • certification, 882
    • charterers, 611, 627
    • clean-up, 382
    • clean-up costs, 375
    • Clean Water Act (United States), 184–185, 187, 191
    • containers, 634, 882
    • Dangerous Cargo Manifest, 635
    • definition, 220
    • difficulties, 269
    • DOT Regulations, 881–883
    • enforcement, 879–880, 883
    • financial responsibility, 220–221
    • fines, 883
    • Grandcamp, 269–270
    • Hazardous Materials Transport Act 1975 (United States), 879–883
    • Hazardous Materials Transportation Uniform Safety Act (United States), 879–880
    • IMDG Code, 634, 882
    • Independenta, 285
    • injunctions, 191
    • knowledge, 883
    • labelling, 634
    • MARPOL, 881
    • Mont Louis, 270
    • natural resources, 507
    • non-persistent oil, 6
    • Oil Pollution Act 1990 (United States), 54, 635
    • OPRC 1990, 922
    • penalties, 883
    • Ports and Waterways Safety Act (United States), 857
    • property damage, 407
    • registration statement, 881
    • response measures in the United States, 931–959, 976–980, 984
    • salvage, 588, 604
    • standards, 880, 883
    • stowage, 633–635, 882
    • Tank Vessel Act 1936 (United States), 860
    • terrorism, 295
    • Texas City Disaster, 269–270
    • training, 881–883
    • transport, 879–883
    • uniformity, 883
    • United States, 21, 47, 240, 635, 855, 879–883
    • waste, 338–340, 344–352
  • Hazardous and Noxious Substances Convention 1996. See also Hazardous and noxious substances
  • Hazardous waste
    • petroleum exclusion, 341–344
    • recycling, 346, 351
    • Resource Conservation and Recovery Act 1976 (United States), 338–352
    • shipowners, 338–352
    • ships for scrapping, 1015, 1029–1049 passim. See also Dismantling of ships
    • solid waste, 344–346, 349
    • state law, 348–349
    • Superfund, 303–304
    • Toxicity Characteristics, 349–350
    • transboundary movement, 1015–1029 passim. See also Shipment of waste
    • treatment, storage or disposal facilities, 349–350
    • transporter provisions, 351–352
    • used oil, 344–349
  • Health and safety at work, 943–944
  • Hebei Spirit
    • criminal proceedings, 1112–1113
    • date for conversion of compensation limit into national currency, Fund Convention, 155
    • emergency legislation, 124
    • interim payments
      • risk to shipowner of deposit of limitation fund still being required, 164
      • restrictions on, 161
    • struck by crane barge Samsung No. 1, 667
    • Web-based Claims Management System, 159
  • Historical overview of oil pollution regimes, 3–80
  • HNS. See Hazardous and noxious substances
  • HNS Fund, 280, 286–293
    • administration, 286, 290
    • Assembly, 290
    • cases in which the HNS Fund pays compensation, 287–290
    • charterers, 628
    • contributions, 286, 291–292
    • exclusions, 290
    • funding, 291–292
    • limit of liability, 290
    • organisation, 290
    • reports, 291–292
    • Secretariat, 291
  • Hotels, 461–464
  • Hull and cargo insurance, 753–781
  • Ikan Tanda, 1011
  • IMCO. See Inter-Governmental Maritime Consultative Organization, International Maritime Organization
  • IMDG Code, 634, 882
  • Immunity. See also State immunity
    • Clean Water Act (United States), 188
    • criminal offences, 1148–1149
    • response measures in the United States, 964–966
    • “use immunity”, 188
  • IMO. See International Maritime Organization
  • Import controls on waste shipments, 1022
  • Incident Command Center, 983–985
  • Incineration, 843–844
  • Indemnification under Fund Convention 1971, 151
    • background to, 17, 18
    • subrogation against shipowner or guarantor, effect on, 165–166
    • subrogation against third parties, 166
    • time limit for claim, 156–157
  • Indemnities
  • Indigenous persons, 48
  • Industry controls on ship safety standards, 1067–1071
  • Information
    • CERCLA (United States), 314
    • criminal offences, 1137
    • false, 1137
    • National Contingency Plan, 944
    • natural resources, 511–514, 517, 522, 527–529
    • OPRC 1990, 925
    • response measures in the United States, 966–967, 971
    • vessel response plans, 898
  • Injunctions
    • CERCLA (United States), 352
    • Clean Water Act (United States), 191
    • hazardous and noxious substances, 191
    • hazardous waste, 352
  • Innocent passage, 874
  • Inspections
    • casualty investigations, 1144–1145
    • CERCLA (United States), 307, 314
    • charterers, 616
    • criminal offences, 1136, 1144–1145
    • lightering, 875
    • Oil Pollution Act 1990 (United States), 192
    • port state control, 1061–1062
    • response measures in the United States, 974–975
    • ships, 620
    • standards, 1067–1068
    • Tank Vessel Act 1936 (United States), 861
    • towing vessels, 874–875
  • Institute Clauses
  • Insurance. See also P&I Clubs, Self-insurance
    • additional, P&I premiums for US trading, 647
    • bareboat charters, 646
    • bunker spills, 264
    • cargo, 770–774, 778
    • CERCLA (United States), 336–337
    • certificates of financial responsibility, 750
    • certification. See compulsory insurance
    • charterers, obligation to arrange and pay for, 646–647
    • collisions, pollution resulting from, 779–781
    • compulsory
    • Exxon Valdez, 49–50, 745
    • financial responsibility, 219, 222–224, 749–750
    • First Line, 61
    • general average, 770–774
    • global corporate excess policies, 49–51
    • guarantors, 127, 223–224, 749–750
    • Hazardous and Noxious Substances Convention 1996
    • hull
      • collisions, pollution resulting from, 779–781
      • general average, 770–774
      • particular average, 774–778
      • Pollution Hazard Clause, 777
      • Running Down Clause (RDC), 779–781
    • illegality, 747
    • Institute Clauses
    • legal proceedings, 210
    • lenders. See ship finance
    • liability insurance. See P&I Clubs
    • Marine Insurance Act 1906 (UK), exclusions and defences under, 740–744
    • MEIF, 61
    • misrepresentation, 744
    • mortgagees. See ship finance
    • non-disclosure, 744
    • Oil Pollution Act 1990 (United States), 205, 647, 710
    • proximate cause, 99, 776
    • radioactive contamination, 748
    • salvage
      • enhanced awards to salvors, 540
      • Funding Agreement 1980, 546
      • Funding Agreement 1990, 396, 403, 548
    • scuttling, 742–743
    • ship finance
      • Mortgagees’ Additional Perils (Pollution) Insurance, 709–710
      • Mortgagees’ Interest Insurance, 708–709
      • P&I cover
        • owner’s non-recovery under, 706
        • requirement of, 705–706, 713
        • role of, 706
    • sue and labour expenses, 738–740
    • United States, 20, 750
    • unseaworthiness, 740–742
    • war risks, 99
    • wilful misconduct, 127, 742–743
  • Insurance industry
    • controls on ship safety standards, 1068–1070
  • Interest
    • payable by contributors to IOPC Funds, 142
    • payable by IOPC Funds to claimants, 151
      • effect on Funds’ liability limit, 154
    • payable by shipowner to claimants, 121–122
      • effect on Funds’ liability limit,
        • Fund Convention 1971, 154
        • Fund Convention 1992, 154
  • Interest groups. See Special interest groups Inter-Governmental Maritime Consultative Organization (IMCO). See also International Maritime Organization
  • Interim payments
    • Civil Liability Conventions, 113
    • IOPC Funds, 159–164
  • Internal exercises, 985–986
  • International Association of Classification Societies, 63, 1067–1068
  • International Association of Independent Tanker Owners. See INTERTANKO
  • International Chamber of Shipping Bridge Procedure Guide, 238
  • International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships. See MARPOL 73/78
  • International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution of the Sea by Oil 1954. See OILPOL
  • International Convention on Civil Liability for Bunker Oil Pollution Damage, 2001. See Bunkers Convention 2001
  • International Convention on Salvage 1989. See Salvage Convention 1989
  • International Convention on the Establishment of an International Fund for Compensation for Oil Pollution Damage. See Fund Convention 1971, Fund Convention 1992
  • International Convention on Tonnage Measurement of Ships 1969
    • Civil Liability Convention 1969, 114–116
    • Civil Liability Convention 1992, 117
    • Hazardous and Noxious Substances Convention 1996, 284
  • International Convention Relating to the Intervention on the High Seas in Cases of Oil Pollution Casualties. See Intervention Convention 1969
  • International Group of P&I Clubs, 729–732, 735, 745. See also P&I Clubs
    • cover provided by Group Clubs, 730–732
    • financial responsibility of shipowner, 57
    • guarantors, 57
    • Hazardous and Noxious Substances Convention 1996, insurance capacity, 284
    • Memorandum of Understanding with IOPC Funds, 157–158
    • Oil Pollution Act 1990 (United States), 56–57
    • oil pollution risks, 732
    • Pollution Sub-Committee, 730
    • Pooling Agreement, 730–731
    • reinsurance, 56–57, 731–732, 745
    • salvage
      • Funding Agreement 1980, 546
      • Funding Agreement 1990, 396, 403, 548
    • terrorist risks, 747–748, 750
  • International Legal Conference on Marine Pollution Damage 1969 (Brussels), 14–17
  • International Maritime Organization Civil Liability Convention, 1969, 71
    • Fund Convention 1971, 71
    • Guidelines. See Table of International Instruments and Agreements
    • intervention, 902
    • IOPC Funds, 139
    • Oil Pollution Act 1990 (United States), 63
    • OPRC 1990, 923–924, 926–927
    • port state control, 1060
    • standards, 1067–1068
  • International Oil Pollution Compensation Funds. See IOPC Funds
  • International rules to prevent pollution from ships, 807–853
    • Control of Harmful Anti-fouling Systems on Ships, 847–850
      • provisions, 848–850
        • conference resolutions, 849
        • inspections and violations, 848
    • enforcement, 1051–1071
    • international law of the sea, 808–817
      • coastal states. See regulation
      • flag states. See regulation
      • maritime zones
        • archipelagic water, 811
        • contiguous zone, 810
        • continental shelf, 812
        • exclusive economic zone (EEZ), 811
        • high seas, 812
        • internal waters, 809–810
        • straits used for international navigation, 810
        • territorial sea, 810
      • regulation by flag states, 812–813
      • regulation by coastal states, 813–816
        • archipelagic waters, 815
        • exclusive economic zone, 814
        • high seas, 815
        • internal waters, 813
        • straits used for international navigation, 815
        • territorial sea, 814
    • international organizations, 816–817
    • jurisdiction. See international law of the sea, regulation
    • Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL 73/78), 821–847. See also MARPOL 73/78
      • air pollution (Annex VI), 840–845
        • background, 840
        • emissions controls, 841
          • ozone depleting substances, 841
          • nitrogen oxides (NOx), 841–842
          • sulphur oxides (SOx), 842–843
          • volatile organic compounds (VOCs), 843
        • fuel oil quality, 844
        • incineration, 843–844
        • NOx Technical Code, 844–845
        • reception facilities, 844
        • revised Annex VI 2008, 844–845
        • shipboard incineration, 843–844
      • background, 821–823
      • carbon emissions, 845–847
      • garbage (Annex V), 839–840
      • greenhouse gas emissions, 845–847
      • harmful substances in packaged forms (Annex III), 838
      • implementation and enforcement of MARPOL, 847
      • noxious liquid substances in bulk (Annex II), 834–837
        • categorization of substances, 834
        • design, construction, arrangement and equipment, 835
        • general, 834
          • exemptions and exceptions, 834
        • measures of control by port states, 837
        • operational discharges of residues, 835
          • Cargo Record Book, 837
          • categories Y and Z, 836
          • category X, 836
          • cleaning agents and additives, 836
          • control of discharges, 835
          • discharge standards, 835
          • pre-washes, 836
          • Procedures and Arrangements Manual, 836
        • reception facilities, 837
        • shipboard marine pollution emergency plan (SMPEP), 837
        • surveys and certification, 834–835
      • oil (Annex I), 824–833
      • general provisions
        • application to oil tankers and offshore craft, 825–826
        • exceptions and exemptions, 826
        • special areas, 826
      • offshore craft, application to, 825–826
      • operational discharges of oil
        • crude oil washing operations, 832
        • discharge conditions, 828, 832
        • Oil Record Book, 829, 832–833
      • reception facilities, 833
      • requirements for cargo area of oil tankers
        • construction
          • carriage of heavy grade oil as cargo, 831
          • double hull and double bottom requirements, 829–831
          • other construction requirements, 831
          • segregated ballast tanks (SBT), 829
        • equipment
          • crude oil washing requirements, 832
          • oil discharge monitoring and control system, 831–832
          • oil/water interface detector, 832
      • requirements for machinery spaces of ships
        • construction and equipment
        • discharge connections, 828
        • fuel tank protection, 827
        • oil filtering equipment, 828
        • sludge tanks, 827
      • segregation of oil and water ballast and carriage of oil in forepeak tanks, 829
      • shipboard oil pollution emergency plan (SOPEP), 833
      • special requirements for fixed or floating platforms, 833
      • surveys and certification, 826–827
    • sewage (Annex IV), 838–839
      • equipment and control of discharge, 839
      • general, 838
      • reception facilities, 839
      • surveys and certification, 839
  • Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS), 817–821
    • amendment procedure, 821
    • provisions
      • additional structural requirements for bulk carriers, 821
      • carriage of cargoes, 819
      • carriage of dangerous goods, 819
      • construction and sub-division, 817–819
      • enhanced surveys, 820
      • fire prevention, detection and extinction, 818
      • high-speed craft, 820
      • life saving appliances and arrangements, 818
      • maritime security, 820–821
      • nuclear ships, 819
      • radiocommunications, 818
      • safety of navigation, 818–819
      • ship management, 820
    • scope, 817
  • Ships’ Ballast Water and Sediments, 850–853
    • background, 850
    • provisions, 850–853
      • Annex, 852
        • general provisions, 852
        • management and control requirements, 852
      • ballast water exchange and performance standards, 852
        • survey and certification requirements, 853
        • transfer of harmful species, 852
      • general obligation, 850
      • specific obligations, 851
      • reception facilities, 851
      • research and monitoring, 851
      • survey, certification and inspection, 851
      • technical assistance, 851
  • International Safety Management Code. See ISM Code
  • International Tanker Indemnity Association, 14
  • International Tanker Owners Pollution Federation Ltd. See ITOPF
  • International Tonnage Certificates, 221
  • International treaties and conventions. See Treaties and conventions
  • Intersessional Working Groups. See under IOPC Funds
  • INTERTANKO. See also Table of Cases
    • financial responsibility, 224
    • MEIF, 224
  • Intervening events
  • Intervention. See also Intervention Convention 1969
    • IOPC Funds, intervention in proceedings under Civil Liability Conventions, 157
    • state intervention. See Intervention Convention 1969, Intervention on the High Seas Act
  • Intervention Convention 1969
    • abandoned ships, 905
    • Amoco Cadiz, 903
    • best endeavours, 902
    • Civil Liability Conventions, 904
    • coastal states, 891, 899, 902–904
    • coastline, 902
    • compensation, 903
    • consultation, 902–904
    • costs, 903
    • customary law, 903
    • Eleni V, 905
    • exclusive economic zones, 900
    • exercise of right to take measures, 902
    • government bodies, 904
    • grave and imminent danger, 902
    • high seas, 899
    • “imminent threat or material damage”, 900
    • innocent passage, 903
    • International Maritime Organization, 902
    • “maritime casualty”, 900
    • national laws, 903
    • notice, 904
    • “oil”, 901
    • pollutants, 901–902
    • proportionality, 902–903
    • “related interests”, 902
    • salvage, 904
    • “ship”, 900
    • “substances other than oil”, 901
    • territorial sea, 899–904
    • Torrey Canyon, 891, 899, 900, 903–905
    • types, 904–905
    • use of force, 904
  • Intervention on the High Seas Act (United States), 330
  • Inverpool, 9
  • Invoices, 475
  • IOPC Funds. See also Fund Conventions 1971 and 1992
    • Assemblies, 137, 139
      • composition, 139
      • consistency between decisions of 1971 and 1992 Fund Assemblies, 366
      • constitution, 139
      • claims, determination and settlement, role in, 159
      • endorsement of Intersessional Working Group reports
        • Fifth (1971 Fund) (damage to marine environment), 482
        • Seventh (1971 Fund) (criteria for admissibility of claims), 151, 366–368
      • functions, 139
      • records of decisions, 143
      • resolutions
        • No. 3, damage to marine environment, 481
        • significance under 1969 Vienna Convention, 368
      • uniform application of Conventions
        • emphasis on, 364
        • role in maintaining, 366–368
    • claims
      • admissibility, criteria. See Criteria for admissibility of claims
      • claims manuals, 151
      • determination and settlement, 140, 150, 154, 167–168, 367
    • compensation
      • cases in which Funds pay
        • damage exceeds liability limit under CLC, 149–150
        • no liability under CLC, 145–147
          • shipowner exonerated from liability, 146
          • unidentified ship, 145
        • shipowner financially incapable, 147–149
          • assets insufficient, 149
          • compulsory insurance requirements
            • not applicable, 147
            • not complied with, 149
          • insurance cover insufficient, 149
          • shipowner’s expenses, 150, 373
      • distribution, 155
      • limits
        • amounts, 153
        • conversion into national currency, 155
        • interest awarded against shipowner, effect of, 154
        • interest paid or payable by Funds, 154
        • natural phenomenon, 153
        • unit of account, 155
    • constitution, 139
    • contributions
      • capping, 1992 Fund Protocol, 72
      • full collection, 137
      • funding by, 141–143
      • transitional arrangements, 167
    • contributing oil
      • quantities included, 141
      • quantities received in main contributory states, 143
      • receivers liability to pay contributions, 141–142
    • criteria for admissibility of claims,
      • adoption of, 366–367
      • background to, 366–367
      • clean-up operations and preventive measures
        • cost of measures, 383
        • fixed costs, 388–389
        • reasonableness of measures, 375
      • damage to marine environment
        • exclusion of claims other than for costs of reasonable measures of reinstatement, 480–481
        • funding of studies, 488
        • reinstatement measures, 488
      • economic loss
        • decided cases, 446–475
        • general criteria, 437–440
        • measures to prevent or minimise economic loss, 440
      • legal status of, 367–368
    • decisions
      • compatibility between 1971 and 1992 Funds, 366–367
      • economic loss, 446–475
      • records of, 143
      • role in maintaining international uniformity, 366–368
    • Director of the Funds, 137, 138, 139, 141
      • chief administrative officer, 137, 140
      • claims settling authority, 159
      • contributions, collection, 142
      • Jacobsson, Måns, 141
      • legal representative of Funds, 141
      • Oosterveen, Willem, 141
      • same for both Funds, 138
      • Secretariat, head of, 138, 141
    • exclusion of liability, 152–153
    • Executive Committees, 139, 140
      • claims
        • criteria for admissibility, role in developing, 366–367
        • determination and settlement, role in, 159
      • composition, 140
      • constitution, 140
      • establishment of, 1992 Fund, 140
      • functions, 140
      • records of decisions, 143
      • uniform application of Conventions, role in maintaining, 366–368
    • finance, 3, 141–143
    • funding, 3, 141–143
    • geographical scope, 144–145
    • headquarters, 138
    • indemnification of shipowners by 1971 Fund,
      • background to, 17, 18–19
      • subrogation against shipowner or guarantor, effect on, 165
      • subrogation against third parties, 166
    • interest
      • payable by contributors to Funds, 142
      • payable by Funds to claimants, 151
        • effect on Funds’ liability limit, 154
      • payable by shipowner to claimants, 121–122
        • effect on Funds’ liability limit, 1992 Fund, 153
    • intergovernmental bodies, as, 3, 138, 139–140, 366
    • Internal Regulations, 139, 141, 159
    • interim payments, 160
    • Intersessional Working Groups (1971 Fund)
      • Fifth
        • damage to the marine environment, claims for, 480–481
        • fixed costs, claims for, 388
        • payment of interest, 151
      • Sixth (entry into force of Protocols), 71
      • Seventh (criteria for admissibility of claims), 151, 366–367, 369, 389, 438–441
  • Intersessional Working Groups (1992 Fund)
      • Second
        • applicability of regime to offshore craft, 91, 246
        • applicability of regime to vessels constructed or adapted for carriage of persistent oil and other cargoes, 90
      • Third, 77–78
        • Review of compensation regime, 77–78
        • criteria governing claims
        • environmental damage, 487
        • environmental impact studies, 490
        • establishment to review compensation regime, 77
        • jurisdiction of national courts, 129
        • revision of conventions, decided against, 77–78, 1069
        • “ship”, CLC 92 definition, 91
        • substandard shipping, 1069
      • Fourth
        • conclusion, 1069–1070
        • establishment to examine non-technical measures to promote quality shipping, 78, 1069
        • measures introduced by P&I Clubs, 1070
  • jurisdiction, 164–165
  • legal proceedings
    • extent to which Funds bound by proceedings against shipowner, 165
    • intervention by Funds in proceedings against shipowner, 157
    • notification, 156
  • liability. See compensation and exclusion of liability
  • limit of Funds’ liability, 153–156
    • amounts
      • 1992 Fund, 153
    • conversion into national currency 1992 Fund, 155
    • distribution of available compensation, 155–156
    • natural phenomenon, 153
    • interest, effect of, see interest
    • unit of account, 1992 Fund, 155
  • limitation of actions, see time limit for proceedings
    • member states, 4, 18, 32, 77, 81–82, 132, 137–143 passim, App. 1
    • Memorandum of Understanding with International Group of P&I Clubs, 157–158
    • notification, proceedings under Civil Liability Conventions, 156
      • form of notification, 156–157
    • object, 4, 17–19, 137, 368–369
    • oil, contributing, see contributing oil
    • oil receivers, 142–144
    • oil reports, 142
    • organs, 139–141
    • P&I Clubs, co-operation with, 157–165, 167–168
    • policy, 368
    • purpose, 4, 17–19, 137, 368–369
    • receipts of oil, 141–143
    • receivers of oil, 141–143
    • recourse
      • against shipowner and his guarantor, 165–166
      • against third parties, 166
      • Funds’ subrogation to rights of shipowner, 166, 627
    • reports, 142–143
    • Secretariat, 137, 138, 141
    • subrogation, 165–168
      • Funds’ subrogation to rights of shipowner, 166, 627
      • Funds’ subrogation to recovery rights of other parties, 167
      • rights of subrogation against Funds,
        • insurer of claimant, 167
        • other parties, 167–168
    • time limit for proceedings,
      • claim for compensation, 156
        • notification of proceedings under CLC, 156
        • legal action against Fund, 157
    • Working Groups. See Intersessional Working Groups Irish Stardust, 103
  • Iron Baron, 256
  • ISM Code, 63
    • criminal offences, 1143–1144
    • Oil Pollution Act 1990 (United States), 63
    • P&I cover, 748
    • ship management, 661
  • ITIA (International Tanker Indemnity Association), 14
  • ITOPF (International Tanker Owners Pollution Federation Ltd)
  • Ixtoc, 47
  • Jacobsson, Måns, 141
  • Japan, 71
  • Jettison
    • MARPOL 73/78, 838
    • salvage, 604
  • Joint and several liability
    • bareboat charters, 646–647
    • Bunkers Convention, 265–261
    • CERCLA (United States), 310, 331
    • charterers, 611
    • Civil Liability Convention 1969, 95
    • Deepwater Port Act (United States), 45
    • Hazardous and Noxious Substances Convention 1996, 278
    • Oil Pollution Act 1990 (United States), 197
    • ship management, 651, 652
    • Trans-Alaska Pipeline Authorization Act (United States), 42
  • Joint Operations Center, 930
  • Jones, Walter, 54
  • Jose Marti, 104, 147
  • Judgments. See Enforcement of judgments, Recognition of judgments
  • Judicial review
  • Jupiter, 432–433
  • Jurisdiction
    • Admiralty, 177–180
    • Bunkers Convention, 265–266
    • Civil Liability Conventions, 15, 112, 128–131
      • incidents affecting non-CLC states, 131
      • incidents affecting only CLC states, 130
      • incidents affecting two states subscribing to different versions, 131
    • coastal state control, 1062, 1064, 1065
    • competent courts, 128–129
    • conduct, 130
    • Deepwater Port Act (United States), 45
    • enforcement of ship safety rules, 1059
    • exclusive, 121, 128–130
    • financial responsibility, 57
    • Hazardous and Noxious Substances Convention 1996, 293
    • incidents affecting more than one state, 129–131
    • insurance, 128
    • IOPC Funds, 164–165
    • judgments
      • recognition and enforcement, 128
    • limitation funds, 11, 121, 128–130
    • limitation of liability, 130
    • Oil Pollution Act 1990 (United States), 54, 58, 196, 225–228
    • pollution prevention, 1051, 1055, 1056, 1064
    • port state control, 1055, 1056, 1059
    • Torrey Canyon, 129
    • United States, 177–180
      • advantages of, 4–5
    • venue, 225–228
  • Kamina, 1011
  • Karin B, 1017
  • Kasuga Maru No. 1, 412
  • Khark V, 909–910
  • Khian Sea, 632
  • Kirki, 914
  • Knowledge. See also Privity and knowledge
  • Kristal, 1013
  • Kure, 255
  • Kuroshima, 203
  • Kuzbass, 73
  • Labelling
    • containers, 634
    • hazardous and noxious substances, 634
    • US hazardous and noxious substances, 299, 301
  • Laura D’Amato
    • criminal proceedings
      • accidental spill, 1088, 1100
      • chief officer, 1102
      • fine, mitigation, 1102
      • master, 1076
      • parties liable to prosecution, 1076
  • Law of the Sea Convention, 1052–1055, 1128
  • LDC. See Dumping at sea, London Dumping Convention 1972
  • Leasing, 711, 714–718, 724–725
  • Legal proceedings. See also Claims, Jurisdiction
  • Lender liability
  • operators, 711–712
  • Letters of credit, 219, 222
  • Liability. See also Fault, Liability funds, Joint and several liability, Limitation of liability, Strict liability
  • Liability funds
    • Deepwater Port Liability Fund, 46
    • offshore Oil Pollution Compensation Fund, 41
    • Oil Pollution Act 1990 (United States), 53–54, 55, 195, 210–216
    • Oil Spill Liability Trust Fund, 55, 61, 211–216
    • state law, 47–48
    • TAPAA fund, 42–44
  • Liens. See Maritime liens
  • Lightering, 860, 875–876, 962–963, 972, 973
  • Lights, 104
  • Lilar, Albert, 14, 17
  • Limburg
    • collision
      • act of terrorism, 669
    • terrorism
      • exclusion of liability under CLC, 100
  • Limitation of actions. See Time limits
  • Limitation funds
  • Limitation of liability, 785–804. See also Limitation funds, Limitation of Liability Convention 1957, Limitation of Liability Convention 1976
    • acts or omissions, 119
    • actual fault or privity, 116–117, 119, 791–794
    • alter egos, 119, 791–792
    • Amoco Cadiz, 27–28
    • amount of liability limit, 81, 114, 790, 800
    • arrest of ships, 132–133, 135–136
    • Bermuda, 11
    • bunker spills, 6, 262–264, 798
    • calculation of limitation tonnage, 790–791, 800
    • cargo interests, 607
    • CERCLA (United States), 320–321, 327
    • Charlotte, 792
    • charterers, 607, 628, 637–638, 789–790
      • slot charterers, 638
      • sub-charterers, 638
    • Civil Liability Convention 1969, 14–17, 27–29, 85, 106, 113–125, 131
    • Civil Liability Convention 1992, 72, 113, 117–124
    • claims subject to limitation, 788–789, 794–799
    • clean-up, 24
    • clean-up expenses and preventive measures, 375, 798
      • cost of preventive measures by owner, 798–799
      • environmental damage, 797–798
      • pure economic loss, 797
      • recourse claim, 799
      • third parties, 799
    • Clean Water Act (United States), 33–34, 37
    • colliding ships
      • claims by parties suffering pollution damage, 677–678
      • claims by owners of colliding ship (contribution claims), 687
      • recourse claims by compensation bodies, 688–689
      • conduct barring, 116–117, 119, 130, 149, 791–794, 801–803
    • “damages”, 788–789
    • Deepwater Port Act (United States), 46
    • financial responsibility, 225
    • France, 10–11
    • Fund Convention 1971, 72, 73, 116–117
    • general average, 796
    • gold francs, 154
    • Hazardous and Noxious Substances Convention 1996, 272, 278, 280, 283–284
    • importance, 113
    • insurance, 127–128, 709
    • international conventions, 786–787
      • Brussels Convention 1957, 787–794. See also Limitation of Liability Convention 1957
      • London Convention 1976 (LLMC), 794–803. See also Limitation of Liability Convention 1976
    • IOPC Funds, 137, 145, 148–149, 153–156
    • jurisdiction, 130
    • limitation funds, 113–114, 120–125
    • Marion, 792–793
    • Nissos Amorgos, 115
    • Oil Pollution Act 1990 (United States), 53, 55, 57, 194, 197, 207–212
    • onus of proof, 794, 803
    • Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act Amendments (United States), 40–41
    • P&I, 710
    • parties, 789–790, 799
    • “personal” act or omission, 801
    • pilot, 697
    • privity and knowledge, 20–21, 23–24, 793
    • responsible party, 193–194
    • SDRs, 114
    • Sea Empress, 115–116
    • ship management, 792, 651
    • shipowners, 16, 116–117
    • small tankers, 118
    • special compensation, 567–568, 796
    • state of mind of person liable, 801
      • intent to cause loss, 802
      • recklessness with knowledge, 802
      • “such loss”, 803
    • strict liability, 13–15, 113
    • tonnage, 115, 119
    • Torrey Canyon, 10
    • Trans-Alaska Pipeline Authorization Act (United States), 42–44
    • United Kingdom, 9–10
    • United States, 3, 7–9, 19–25, 47–48
    • Amoco Cadiz, 27–28
      • Shipowner’s Limitation of Liability Act 1851 (United States), 32
    • wreck removal, 798, 996–997
  • Limitation of Liability Convention 1957, 787–794
    • actual fault or privity, 16, 116, 119
    • amount of liability limit, 790
    • arrest of ships, 133, 135
    • calculation of limitation tonnage, 790–791
    • cargo interests, 16
    • Civil Liability Convention 1969, 16, 113
    • claims subject to limitation, 788–789
      • “damages”, 788–789
      • conduct barring limitation, 791–794
      • “actual fault”, 792–793
      • “owner”, 791–792
      • onus of proof, 794
      • “privity”, 793
    • clean-up costs, 16
    • Hazardous and Noxious Substances Convention 1996, 283
    • limitation funds, 16
    • parties entitled to avail themselves of limitation, 789–790
    • SDR Protocol 1979, 787
    • shipowners, 16–17
    • tonnage, 16
  • Limitation of Liability Convention 1976 (LLMC), 794–803
    • Aegean Sea
      • charterers’ liabilities, 637–638
      • claims subject to limitation, 794–795
    • amount of liability limit, 800
    • bunker spills, 262–264, 798
    • calculation of limitation tonnage, 800
    • charterers’ liabilities, 637–638
      • slot charterers, 638
      • sub-charterers, 638
    • Civil Liability Conventions, relationship with, 113, 795–796
    • claims subject to limitation under LLMC, 794–799
      • bunker pollution, 262–264, 798
      • claims excluded, 795–796
      • clean-up expenses and preventive measures, 798
      • environmental damage, 797–798
      • owner’s expenses, 798–799
      • pure economic loss, 797
      • recourse claim, 799
      • third parties, 799
      • wreck removal, 798, 996–997
    • colliding ships
      • claims by parties suffering pollution damage, 677–678
      • claims by owners of colliding ship (contribution claims), 687
        • recourse claims by compensation bodies, 688–689
      • conduct barring limitation, 801–803
        • onus of proof, 803
        • “personal” act or omission, 801
        • state of mind of person liable, 801
        • intent to cause loss, 802
        • recklessness with knowledge, 802
        • “such loss”, 803
      • general average, 796
      • hazardous and noxious substances
        • liability for damage by, 283
      • Hazardous and Noxious Substances Convention 1996
        • absence of linkage with, 283–284
      • offshore craft, 248–249, 251
      • parties entitled to limit liability, 799
        • charterers, 637
        • salvors, 567
        • shipowner, 799
      • Protocol 1996, 568, 803–804
      • salvors, 567–568, 594–596, 789
      • “ship”, 800
        • aircushion vehicles, 800
        • floating platforms, 800
        • mobile drilling units, 800
        • offshore craft, 248–249, 251
      • “shipowner”, 799
      • special compensation, 567–568, 796
      • tonnage, 800
      • wreck removal, 798, 996–997
  • Limitation periods. See Limitation of actions
  • Litigation. See Legal proceedings
  • Lloyd’s Open Form
  • Local authorities. See Public authorities
  • LOF. See Lloyd’s Open Form
  • London Dumping Convention 1972 (LDC), 1001–1013
  • Loss of image claims, 51
  • Loss of life, 538
  • Loss of profit
    • Civil Liability and Fund Conventions 1992, 358
    • fisheries, 452
    • natural resources, 515
    • tourism, 460
  • Loss of use or enjoyment, 41, 472
  • Louisiana
    • economic loss, 435–436
    • Louisiana Offshore Oil Port (LOOP), 45
  • Magnuson Act (United States), 855
  • Malicious acts, 99, 100
  • Managers. See Ship management
  • Mandatory Excess Insurance Facility, 61
  • Manning
    • alcohol testing, 865
    • certificates, 864–865
    • criminal offences, 1147
    • drug testing, 865
    • Exxon Valdez, 873
    • foreign tank vessels, 866
    • merchant mariner’s document, 865
    • National Contingency Plan, 944
    • Oil Pollution Act 1990 (United States), 864–866
    • person in charge, 864–866
    • salvage, 891
    • Tank Vessel Act 1936 (United States), 861
    • tankers, 873–874
    • training, 866
    • US Coast Guard, 864–866
    • US tank vessels, 864–865
  • Marine Debris Co-ordinating Committee, 864
  • Marine environment. See also Environmental damage, Natural resources
    • bunker spills, 798
    • damage to, claims for
      • international conventions, 480–490
        • Civil Liability Convention 1969, 480–481
        • Civil Liability Convention 1992, 482
        • costs of reinstatement, restoration, 487
        • Fund Convention 1971, 481
          • Resolution No. 3 of 1971 Fund, 481–482
        • Fund Convention 1992, 482
        • funding of studies, 488–490
        • governmental bodies, claims by, 482–486
        • Hazardous and Noxious Substances Convention 1996, 490
        • Protocols 1984 and 1992, 482
        • reinstatement, costs of, 487–488
        • restoration, costs of, 487–488
      • United States, position in. See Natural resources
    • Deepwater Port Act (United States), 45
    • lightering, 875–877
    • MARPOL 73/78, 808, 823
    • natural recovery, 361–362, 478, 521–522
    • natural resources, 477–532
    • OPRC 1990, 921–927
    • Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act Amendments (United States), 40–41
    • policy considerations, compensation, 478–480
    • Tank Vessel Act 1936 (United States), 855, 858–862
    • technical issues, 359–363, 478–480
    • United States, 855–861 passim, 875. See also Natural resources
  • Marine insurance. See Insurance, Hull and cargo insurance, P&I Clubs
  • Marine Preservation Association, 976
  • Marine property insurance. See General average, Hull and cargo insurance
  • Marine Spill Response Corporation, 975–976
  • Maritime authorities, liability, 691–692, 698–704
    • cause of incident, 698–702
    • immunity from suit, 702–704
    • pilots
      • independent fault of employer, 695–696
      • vicarious liability for acts of, 693–695
    • response to incident, 702–704
      • inadequate response, 703
      • spill from response vessel, 704
      • unreasonable measures, 703–704
  • “Maritime lepers”, 909
  • Maritime liens
    • Admiralty jurisdiction, 178–179
    • lenders, 713
    • salvor’s security, 567
    • special compensation, 567
    • United States, 178
  • Maritime Transportation Security Act 2002 (US), 70
  • Marketing
  • MARPOL 73/78, 821–847. See also International rules
  • volatile organic compounds, 840, 843
  • Maslov, G.A., 14
  • Masters
  • Media reports, 51, 52, 64, 68, 69, 136, 363, 415, 441, 457, 462, 559, 907, 1103
  • Medical practice, 464
  • Medina Princess, 766
  • Mega Borg, 52, 951
  • MEIF, 61
  • Memoranda of Understanding
  • “Methodika” formula, 481, 483, 486–487
  • Metula, 360
  • Migratory Bird Treaty Act (US)
    • criminal liability for violations, 1130–1131
  • Milad 1, 95
  • Misconduct. See Wilful misconduct
  • Misrepresentation
  • Mitchell, George, 52, 53
  • Mobil, 62
  • Mobile offshore units, 243, 276
  • Mont Louis, 270
  • Mooring fees, 472
  • Morris J. Berman, 109, 712, 861, 874, 1138–1142
  • Mortgages
  • MSC Ariane, 1101
  • MSC Napoli, 916, 920
  • Müller, Walter, 15
  • Multi-party actions. See Class actions
  • Nagasaki Spirit, 374, 394, 537, 547, 548, 556–561, 564, 566, 568, 590, 667, 767, 788
  • Nairobi Convention on Wreck Removal 2007 (WRC), 990–1000
    • background, 990
    • certification and direct action, 999
    • compulsory insurance, 999
    • direct action, 999
    • disputes, 999
    • hazard, determination of, 994
    • main provisions, 990–991
    • relationship with other liability regimes, 997–999
    • rights and obligations as to wrecks, 993–999
      • reporting, 994
      • locating and marking, 994
      • removal, 995–999
  • scope of application, 991–993
      • “affected state”, 992–993
      • definitions, 992–993
      • exclusions, 991
      • geographical scope, 991
      • “hazard”, 992–993
      • “maritime casualty”, 992
      • “registered owner” and “operator of the ship”, 993
      • “removal”, 993
      • “ship”, 992
      • “wreck”, 992
    • time limits, 999
  • Nakhodka, 73, 117, 155, 382, 459, 751
    • causeway, construction of, 382–383
    • incident, 73
    • maximum amount of compensation (date of conversion into national currency), 155
    • marketing campaign, 459
    • reasonableness of preventive measures, 382–383
    • recourse action by IOPC Fund against insurer, 117, 751
  • Nancy Orr Gaucher, 98, 410–411
  • National Contingency Plan (United States), 20, 929–985 passim